Know the relationship between molecular weight and rate of diffusion
The rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the molecular weight
Small weight-fast diffusion; heavy weight-slow diffusion
Identify RBC’s in various solution and determine tonicity
Tonicity - the ability of an extracellular solution to make water move into or out of a cell by osmosis
If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, there will be a net flow of water out of the cell, and the cell will lose volume (shrink). A solution will be hypertonic to a cell if its solute concentration is higher than that inside the cell, and the solutes cannot cross the membrane.
If a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, there will be a net flow of water into the cell, the cell will gain volume (bigger). If the solute concentration outside the cell is lower than inside the cell, then solutes cannot cross the membrane, then the solution is hypotonic to the cell.
If a cell is placed in an isotonic solution, there will be no set flow of water into or out of the cell, and the cell’s volume will remain stable. If the solute concentration outside the cell is the same as inside the cell, and the solutes cannot cross the membrane, the solution is isotonic to the cell.
Homeostatic feedback loop for respiratory rate, heart rate and temperature
Respiratory Rate:
Stimulus : The level of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the blood increases (often due to exercise or hypoventilation) .
Receptors: Chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata, carotid arteries, and aortic arch detect changes in blood pH and CO2 levels
Control Center: The medulla oblongata processes this information
Effectors: Respiratory muscles (diaphragm and intercostal) adjust breathing rate and depth
Response: Increased respiratory rate removes CO2 and increases O2 intake, restoring normal pH and gas levels.
Heart Rate:
Stimulus : Changes in blood pressure, O2, CO2, or pH levels
Receptors: Baroreceptors (detect blood pressure changes) in the carotid sinus and aortic arch; chemoreceptors monitor blood chemistry
Control Center: The medulla oblongata (cardiac center) processes signals
Effectors : The autonomic nervous system (ANS) adjusts heart rate through the sympathetic nervous system (increases heart rate) or parasympathetic nervous system (decreases heart rate)
Response : Heart rate increases during low O2 or low blood pressure (to circulate oxygen) and decreases when homeostasis is restored.
Temperature Regulation
Stimulus: Changes in body temperature (hyperthermia or hypothermia)
Receptors: Thermoreceptors in the skin and hypothalamus detect temperature fluctuations.
Control Center: The hypothalamus processes this information and signals effectors
Effectors and Responses:
If too hot: Blood vessels dilate (vasodilation) to release heat, and sweat glands produce sweat for cooling
If too cold: Blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction) to retain heat, and shivering generates warmth.
Steps of a generic homeostatic feedback loop
Stimulus : A change in the internal or external environment that disrupts homeostasis (eg. temperature change, pH levels, blood sugar levels)
Sensor (Receptor) : Specialized cells or receptors detect the change and send information to the control center.
Control Center (Integrator): Often the brain or endocrine glands, this component processes the information from the sensors and determines the appropriate response to restore balance.
Effector: This component carries out the response to the stimulus as dictated by the control center. Effectors can be muscles or glands that help to counteract the change.
Response: The action taken by the effectors to restore homeostasis. This could involve increasing or decreasing a physiological process (e.g. sweating to cool down or shivering to warm up)
Feedback: The results of the response are monitored. If homeostasis is restored, the system maintains its state; if not, the loop may repeat, continuing to adjust until balance is achieved.
How to evaluate data to determine the set point, error, and disturbance
Identify the set point
The set point is the optimal level or range that the system aims to maintain. To determine the set point:
Gather baseline data: Collect data over a period to understand the normal range for the variable in question (e.g. body temp., BP, blood glucose levels)
Analyze Trends: Look for patterns in the data to identify the average or median value that represents the stable condition of the system.
Consult Literature: Reference established physiological norms or previous studies to confirm the typical set point for the variable.
Assess Disturbance
A disturbance is any factor or event that causes a deviation from the set point. To evaluate disturbances:
Identify External and Internal Factors: Analyze the data for any external influences (e.g. environmental changes, dietary habits) or internal changes (e.g. illness, stress) that might have impacted the variable.
Quantity Disturbance: Measure the magnitude and duration of the disturbance. This can be done by comparing the data points during the disturbance against the established set point.
Monitor Changes: Track how the system responds to disturbances over time to assess their impact on maintaining homeostasis.
WBC types and normal distribution values/ abnormal values and what those values indicate (infections/diseases) (Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas)
Neutrophils (50-70%) - First responders to infections, especially bacterial. High levels indicate bacterial infections, inflammation, or stress. Low levels can indicate bone marrow disorders or severe infections.
Lymphocytes (20-40%) - Include B cells and T cells, important for immunity. High levels can suggest viral infections or leukemia, while low levels might indicate immune deficiency.
Monocytes (2-8%) - Help with cleaning up dead cells and fighting infections. High levels can be linked to chronic infections or autoimmune diseases.
Eosinophils (1-4%) - Involved in allergic reactions and fighting parasites. Elevated levels may indicate allergies or parasitic infections.
Basophils (0.5-1%) - Release histamine during allergic reactions. High levels might be see in allergic conditions or blood disorders.
Normal WBC Count
Total WBC Count: 4000-11000 cells per microliter of blood (varies slightly by lab)
Leukocytosis (High WBC): Can indicate infection, inflammation, stress, or leukemia
Leukopenia (Low WBC): Can result from bone marrow disorders, viral infections, or autoimmune diseases
Neutrophils: Banded vs Segmented
Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cells and play a crucial role in fighting infections. They exist in different stages of maturation:
Banded Neutrophils (“Bands”) - Immature Neutrophils
Appearance: Have a curved, unsegmented nucleus (band-shaped)
Normal Range: 0-6% of total WBC count (~0-700/uL)
Clinical Significance:
Increased Bands (Bandemia) -> Indicates an acute bacterial infection or severe stress (e.g. sepsis). The bone marrow releases immature neutrophils in response to infection.
Low Bands -> Not clinically significant unless the total WBC count is low, which could suggest bone marrow suppression.
Segmented Neutrophils (“Segs”) - Mature Neutrophils
Appearance: Have a segmented nucleus with 2-5 lobes
Normal Range: 50-70% of total WBC count (~2500-7000/uL)
Clinical Significance:
High Segs (Neutrophilia) -> Suggests bacterial infections, stress, chronic inflammation, or leukemia
Low Segs (Neutropenia) ->Can be caused by viral infections, bone marrow disorders, chemotherapy, or autoimmune diseases.
Discuss the stages of cell cycle/mitosis-which stages are longest/shortest
The cell cycle is a series of events that cells go through to grow and divide. It consists of two main phases:
Interphase (Longest Phase) – Preparation for division
Mitosis (Shortest Phase) – Actual cell division
Stages of the Cell Cycle
Interphase (90% of the Cell Cycle – Longest Phase)
Interphase is the period of cell growth and DNA replication. It has three subphases:
G1 Phase (Gap 1)
The cell grows, produces proteins, and prepares for DNA replication.
Longest variable phase; some cells may stay here indefinitely (e.g., neurons in G0 phase).
S Phase (Synthesis)
DNA replication occurs, ensuring each daughter cell gets a complete genome.
Takes about 6-8 hours in human cells.
G2 Phase (Gap 2)
The cell prepares for mitosis by producing proteins and organelles.
Shorter than G1 but still significant in length.
Mitosis: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
Know proportional and inversely proportional relationships
Direct (Proportional) Relationship
When two quantities increase or decrease together at a constant rate, they are directly proportional.
Inversely Proportional
When one variable increases, the other decreases proportionally.
Know relationship between molecular weight and rate of diffusion
The rate of diffusion of a substance is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular weight.
Lighter molecules diffuse faster
Heavier molecules diffuse slower due to greater mass.
Know relationship between filtration rate and pressure of fluid or weight of fluid
Filtration rate is directly proportional to the pressure or weight of the fluid driving the filtration process.
Higher pressure → Higher filtration rate
Lower pressure → Lower filtration rate
Know why men and women blood values are different
The differences in blood values between men and women are due to biological, hormonal, and physiological factors
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