PART VChapter 17: Transformations in Europe, 1500-1750Renaissance (Europe)-A time of great creative and intellectual activity that has been described as a "rebirth" of Greco-Roman culture. An Italian Renaissance, generally from the mid-fourteenth to the mid-fifteenth century, and a Northern Renaissance, roughly from the early fifteenth to early seventeenth century, are usually distinguished.The period between 1500 and 1750 was not one of progress. It was a harrowing experience to witness the fierce battle between European soldiers, commerce, and ideas. The Reformation brought widespread religious persecution and warfare, as well as more religious freedom for individuals.Martin Luther is seen in a sixteenth-century woodcut on the door of All Saints Church in Wittenberg, Germany, writing his demands for religious reform with a symbolically enormous quill pen.Beginning in 1519, there was a religious reform movement inside the Latin Christian Church. It led to the formation of various new Christian denominations by the "protesters," including the Lutheran and Reformed Churches, as well as the Church of England.In response to the Protestant Reformation, the Latin Christian Church began a religious reform movement. It revolutionized clerical training and discipline while clarifying Catholic theology.throughout the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the pursuit of people suspected of witchcraft, particularly in northern Europe. The European intellectual movement, which began with planetary motion and other areas of physics and by the seventeenth century had laid the foundations for modern science.Between 1576 and 1597, before the creation of the telescope, Tycho erected Europe's best observatory and set a new standard for accurate astronomical observations.a philosophical movement in eighteenth-century Europe that promoted the idea that society could be better by discovering rational principles that governed social behavior and were as scientific as physics' laws.A limited number of noble families dominated European society, with preferential access to important positions in the church, government, and military, as well as tax exemption in most cases.The class of well-off city dwellers whose money derived from industry, finance, commerce, and related professions in early modern Europe.A joint-stock company is a business that offers shares to individuals to raise money for its trading businesses and distribute the risks (and rewards) across numerous investors, generally supported by a government charter.Chapter 18: The Diversity of American Colonial Societies, 1530-1770 following Columbus' voyages, the Americas and the rest of the world exchanged flora, animals, diseases, and technologies. an Amerindian lady milks a cow in this picture, illustrating how the Columbian Exchange influenced native culture and ecology. Cattle, sheep, pigs, and goats gave food, leather, and wool to aboriginal peoples while also destroying their fields.The Spanish crown attempted fast to curtail the conquistadors' independent power and maintain royal authority over both vanquished local communities and European settlers, but geography and technology conspired against them. Because it took a ship more than two hundred days to go from Spain to Veracruz, Mexico, European rulers couldn't keep a close eye on the remote colonies. To get to Lima, Peru, it took an extra month of travel.Portugal focused its resources and energies on Asia and Africa in the sixteenth century. Because early immigrants found no mineral wealth or wealthy native empires in Brazil, the Portuguese king was sluggish to establish costly colonial administration machinery in the New World. However, mismanagement prompted the king to install a governor-general in 1549 and make Salvador the capital of Brazil. The first viceroy of Brazil was appointed by the king in 1720.In southern Mexico, he was the first bishop of Chiapas. He spent the majority of his life defending Amerindians against exploitation. The New Laws of 1542, which limited the authority of Spanish immigrants to compel Amerindians to work for them, were his crowning achievement. Located in Bolivia, one of colonial Spanish America's richest silver mining centers and most populated cities.In the Spanish colonies, Agrantof was given power over a population of Amerindians. It supplied the grantee with a steady supply of low-cost labor as well as regular payments of products from the Amerindians. It required the grantee to convert the Amerindians to Christianity. In colonial Spanish America, a person of European ancestry who was born in the New World. In other parts of the Americas, the word is applied to all non-native peoples.The blending of Europeans, Amerindians, and Africans in the colonies piqued the interest of many European travelers to colonial Latin America. Many people have expressed their opinions on the treatment of slaves. Spanish authorities' designation for someone who is of mixed Amerindian and European ancestry.In Spanish and Portuguese colonies, this phrase was used to denote someone of mixed African and European ancestry.A migrant to British colonies in the Americas who paid for their journey by pledging to work for a specific period of time, usually between four and seven years.In 1618, an elected assembly was established in colonial VirginiaAfter a brief stay in the Netherlands, a group of English Protestant dissenters founded Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts in 1620 to seek religious freedom.Dissenters among English Protestants who thought that God predestined souls for heaven or hell before they were born. In 1629, they established the Massachusetts Bay Colony.Founded in 1608 as a French colony in North America, with its capital in Quebec. In 1763, the British conquered New France.Many of the French fur traders were of mixed Amerindian ancestry, and they lived among and married Amerindian peoples in North America. In Peru in 1780-1781, a member of the Inca aristocracy launched a rebellion against Spanish authorities. He was apprehended and executed alongside his wife and other family members.Chapter 19: The Atlantic System and Africa, 1550-1800After 1500, the Atlantic Basin was connected by a web of trading linkages that transferred goods, wealth, people, and civilizations.Private investors who paid France and England an annual fee in exchange for a monopoly on trade with the West Indies territories.The Dutch government authorized this trading corporation to operate its merchants' trade in the Americas and Africa.Rich men who owned most of the slaves and most of the land in the West Indian colonies, notably in the eighteenth century.The world's most polarized communities throughout the eighteenth century were West Indian plantation colonies. Most islands had a slave population of 90% or more. A plantocracy, a tiny group of extremely wealthy individuals who owned the majority of slaves and the majority of the land, held power. A privileged male slave whose job it was to oversee the operations of a slave gang on a plantation.A difficult period of acclimating to new temperatures, disease conditions, and work habits, as experienced by newly arriving slaves in the Americas.Individual slaves are granted legal freedom.A slave who eluded his or her owner by fleeing. In the West Indies and South America, he was frequently a part of a society of runaway slaves.The early modern European economic system of huge financial institutions, banks, stock exchanges, and investment businesses. Commercial capitalism, the early modern economy's trade structure, is frequently separated from industrial capitalism, which is centered on machine production.By limiting colonies to trade only with their mother-land countries, European government policies in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries aimed to stimulate overseas trade between a country and its colonies while also accumulating valuable metals. The Navigation Acts defined the British system, whereas the Exclusive laws defined the French system.The English government authorized a trading firm in 1672 to conduct its merchants' trade on Africa's Atlantic coast.Enslaved Africans were transported across the Atlantic to the Americas as part of the Atlantic Circuit.In western Sudan, West Africa, there is a people, a language, a kingdom, and an empire. The Muslim Songhai Empire, which spanned from the Atlantic to the Hausa homeland in the sixteenth century, was a major trans-Saharan commercial participant.People of central Sudan, West Africa, who are agriculturalists and traders. Apart from a brief association with the Songhai Empire, the Hausa city-states remained independent until the early nineteenth century, when they were captured by the Sokoto Caliphate.A prominent West African kingdom in Central Sudan, on the southern edge of the Sahara, that was crucial in trans-Saharan trade and the spread of Islam. It lasted from the ninth century to the end of the nineteenth century, and was also known as Kanem-Bornu.
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