AP Psychology Unit 4 - Motivation and Emotion

Motivation

factors that cause an individual to behave a certain way at a particular time

Extrinsic Motivation

doing something for an external reward or to avoid punishment; primary and secondary reinforcers

Intrinsic Motivation

doing something for personal enjoyment that comes from the activity itself

Drive/Motivational State

an internal condition that orients an individual toward a specific category of goals (inc./dec.)

Incentive/reward/reinforcer/goal

• the sought-after objects/ends that cause the drives (can be weak or strong)

• Strong drive causes you to put more effort into getting a weak incentive by enhancing the attractiveness of an object (incentive value) and vice versa

Regulatory Drive

drive that helps preserve homeostasis in order to stay alive (ex. hunger)

Nonregulatory Drive

drive that serves a secondary purpose

Homeostasis

balance of body’s internal conditions

Self-efficacy

an individual’s belief in their own ability to complete a task

Central-state Drive Theory

different drives correspond to neural activity different sets of neurons

Central Drive System

set of neurons whose activity constitutes a drive by receiving/integrating signals and carrying out the motivated behavior

Drive Reduction Theory

motivation comes from a state of imbalance; Homeostasis is disturbed → biological need is created → drive is developed to fill the need → a behavior is performed to restore homeostasis

Incentive Theory

behavior is driven by perception of rewards/punishments

Instinct/Evolution Theory

behavior is driven by innate behaviors developed through evolution

Arousal Theory

• optimal arousal is defined as a good medium on the arousal/awakeness scale

• body is less able to perform tasks if there is too little/too much arousal

Reward

something you either want or like or serves as a reinforcer

Liking

subjective feeling of satisfaction when reward is received; endorphins released

Wanting

desire to obtain something (before it is received); dopamine released

Reinforcement

the effect the reward has in promoting learning; dopamine released

Medial Forebrain Bundle

cluster of neurons in the midbrain that are most crucial for a rewarding effect

Feedback Control

the thing being regulated will feedback upon the controlling device and inhibit further production (ex. Getting full after eating so you don’t overeat)

Arcuate Nucleus

neuron cluster in hypothalamus that controls hunger drive (appetite stimulating/suppressing)

Neuropeptide Y (NPY)

most potent appetite-stimulating neuron (Ghrelin)

Peptide YY (PYY)

appetite-suppressing hormone whose secretion into the bloodstream is stimulated by food ingestion

Leptin

hormone secreted by fat cells and acts upon neurons in the hypothalamus to reduce appetite

External Cues

factors in the environment that help stimulate a drive (ex. Smell of good food can make you hungry)

Testosterone

• regulates male sex drive

• lower levels = less sexual desire

• higher levels = aggressiveness

• production increases in self-confidence-promoting situation

Medial preoptic area in hypothalamus

center for male sex drive

Estrous Cycle

• regulates mammal’s sex drives

• sex drive solely controlled by the cycle, estrogen, progesterone

Ventromedial area in hypothalamus

regulates female sex drive

Arousability

capacity to become sexually aroused in response to certain stimuli; influenced by T in adrenal glands

Proceptivity

motivation to seek out sexual activity even in absence of stimuli; regulated by estrogen, progesterone

Activating Effects

• occur during/after puberty

• hormones acting on already developed brain structures to induce sex drive

Differentiating Effects

• occurs before puberty

• determines whether the brain develops in a male or female direction

• responsible for biological differentiation b/w sex drives

Primary Characteristics

results from puberty that are directly involved in reproduction

Secondary Characteristics

results from puberty that are not directly involved in reproduction

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

bundle of neurons in hypothalamus that regulates circadian rhythm

Benefits of REM Sleep

memory consolidation, emotional processing, prevent degeneration of synaptic clefts, tissue repair

Circadian Rhythm

the physical/mental/behavioral changes that occur over 24hrs; largely influenced by light/dark

Emotion

a subjective feeling directed toward an object/person/self

Self-conscious Emotions

depend on one’s self-awareness and relate to expectations of others for one’s behavior (pride, shame, guilt, empathy, embarrassment…)

Charles Darwin’s Theory

• Theory of evolution by natural selection - traits very randomly & are inherited; favorable traits increase survival & reproduction

• Facial expressions are biologically hardwired and influence survival

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

• Bodily reaction occurs before emotional experience

• Identification of a stimulus → physical response → interpreted as an emotion

• Physical response directly causes an emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

• Emotion and bodily reaction occur simultaneously and independently of one another in response to stimulus

• Highlights role of thalamus in emotional processing

Common Sense Theory of Emotion

• Bodily reaction occurs after emotional experience

• Emotion directly causes physical response

Schachter (Two Factor) Theory of Emotion

• Emotion = physiological arousal + cognitive interpretation

• Interpret arousal based on environment/context —> labelling of emotion

Paul Ekman Theory of Emotion

basic emotions have distinct (and universal) facial expressions (facial feedback theory)

Maslow Hierarchy of Needs

• In order to self-actualize (realizing one’s full potential), one must satisfy 5 sets of needs arranged in a hierarchy

  • Self-actualization needs > esteem needs > belongingness > safety > physiological needs (food/water)

• Self-actualization needs include self-expression, creativity

Individualistic Influence on Emotion

individualistic cultures (US, UK) show stronger emotion

Collectivist Influence on Emotion

collectivist cultures (Japan, Korea) suppress emotions in social settings

Approach Approach Conflict

wanting 2 things but only being able to choose 1, missing out

Approach Avoidance Conflict

wanting something, but also not wanting it/a part of it

Avoidance Avoidance Conflict

not wanting either choice but having to choose at least 1 unpleasant thing

Multiple Approach Avoidance Conflict

multiple options each have both + and - aspects

Emotion Focused Coping

processing stress through meditation, medication, etc to reduce emotions associated w/ stress; inward focused

Problem Focused Coping

seeing stress as a problem to be solved and working solutions until working one is found; outward focused

Eustress

• situations w/ sense of control, seeing stressor as something you can handle

• approach avoidance

Distress

• situations w/ lack of control, seeing stressor as a threat

• avoidance avoidance

General Adaptation System

process of body’s response to stress

Alarm Stage of GAS

lvl of resistance to stress is low while cortisol is released into bloodstream (too much arousal), sympathetic NS activates, fight/flight

Resistance Stage of GAS

body has adapted and is now ready to cope and defend the stress (maintain optimal arousal)

Exhaustion Stage of GAS

resources to defend against stress have depleted → compromised immune system

Big 5 Personality (OCEAN)

Openness to exer

Sunk Cost Fallacy

someone is reluctant to abandon a strategy or course of action due to heavy investment in it, even when it is clear that abandonment would be more beneficial