[BES 3147] Prelims Reviewer

Social Psychology

• The branch of psychology that deals with social interactions, including their origins and their effects on the individual

• The scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Social Thinking

• How we perceive ourselves and others

• What we believe

• Judgment we make

• Our attitudes

Social Influence

• Culture

• Pressures to conform

• Persuasion

• Groups of people

Social Relations

• Prejudice

• Aggression

• Attraction and intimacy

• Helping

Sociology

• Studies large-scale social systems and institutions.

Personality Psychology

• Focuses on individual differences in traits and how these traits shape behavior.

Theory

• is an integrated set of principles that explain and predict observed events.

• Often means “less than a fact”

Facts

• Are agreed-upon statements about what we observe.

Hypotheses

• Entails testable predictions.

• They allow us to test a theory by suggesting how we might try to falsify it.

Sample

• People who participate in the study; part of the population

Random Sampling

• Survey procedure in which every person in the population being studied has an equal chance of inclusion.

Sample Size

• The number of participants in a study.

Framing

• The way a question or an issue is posed; can influence people’s decisions and expressed opinions.

Correlational Research

• Is a research approach that examines the relationship between two or more variables.

• It involves measuring the degree of association or correlation between the variables without manipulating them.

Experimental Research

• Is a research approach that involves the manipulation of one or more variables to observe the effect on another variable.

• The goal is to establish a cause and effect relationship between the variables.

Social Cognition

• Cognition in which people perceive, think about, interpret, categorize, and judge their own social behaviors and those of others.

• It focuses on the role that cognitive processes play in our social interactions.

Automatic Thinking

• Quick and automatic, “without thinking, ”

• Thinking that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless.

Controlled Thinking

• Effortful and deliberate, pausing to think about self and environment, carefully selecting the right course of action

Infants

• According to Harter (1998), at this stage, they recognize themselves in the mirror in the same way that chimps do, and they do this by about 18 months of age.

Two Years Of Age

• At this stage, the infant becomes aware of his or her gender as a boy or a girl.

Age of Four

• At this stage, the child’s self-descriptions are likely to be based on physical features, such as hair color

Age of Six

• At this stage, the child is able to understand basic emotions and the concepts of traits, being able to make state

William James

• Who introduced the idea of Self-Concept in 1890?

Subjective Sense

• What type of self is the “I” according to William James?

Objective Sense

• What type of self is the “Me” according to William James?

Self-Concept

• Is a knowledge representation that contains knowledge about us, including our beliefs about our personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals, and roles, as well as the knowledge that we exist as individuals; cognitive component of the self.

Self-Schema

• Are cognitive generalizations about the self, derived from past experiences, that organize and guide the processing of self-related information.

• Are mental templates by which we organize our worlds.

Self-Esteem

• Reflects the perceived differences between an individual’s actual self-concept (who I think I really am) and some ideal self-image (who I would really like to be).

• Evaluative aspect of the self-concept

Self-Perception

• Reflects how we observe our behavior and the situation in which it took place, make attributions about why the behavior occurred, and draw conclusions about our own characteristics and dispositions.

• Observe and interpret their own behavior to infer their internal states and traits

Darl Bem

• Who made an influential Self Perception theory in 1972?

Spotlight Effect

• Seeing ourselves at center stage, thus intuitively overestimating the extent to which others’ attention is aimed at us.

Illusion of Transparency

• The illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by others

Social Surroundings Affect Our Self-Awareness

• When we are the only member of our race, gender, or nationality in a group, we notice how we differ and how others are reacting to our differences.

Self-Interest Colors Our Social Judgment

• When problems arise in a close relationship, we usually blame our partners instead of ourselves. When things go well at home or work or play, we see ourselves as more responsible.

Self-Concern Motivates Our Social Behavior

• In hopes of making a positive impression, we agonize about our appearance. We also monitor others’ behavior and expectations and adjust our behavior accordingly.

Social Relationships Help Define Our Sense Of Self

• In our varied relationships, we have a varying self. We may be one self with mom, another with friends, and another with teachers.

Social Comparison

• Evaluating one’s opinions and abilities by comparing oneself with others.

• Can be based on incomplete information.

Looking-Glass Self

• This concept describes our use of how we think others perceive us a mirror for perceiving ourselves. What matters for self-concepts is not how others actually see us but the way we imagined they see us.

Charles H. Cooley

• Who introduced the concept: Looking-Glass Self in 1902?

Individualism

• The concept of giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.

Independent Self

• Construing one’s identity as an autonomous self.

Collectivism

• Giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly.

Self

• Is a dynamic and complex construct shaped by cognitive processes, social interactions, and personal experiences.

Self-Complexity

• This refers to the extent to which a person has multiple, distinct self-aspects. A high level of this can act as a buffer against stress, as individuals can draw on different aspects of their identity to cope with challenges.

Markus’s Self-Schema Theory

Research Example:

• In 1977, proposed that self schemas organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information, influencing how individuals

High Self-Esteem

• Is associated with positive outcomes such as resilience and well-being,

Low Self-Esteem

• Can be linked to negative outcomes like depression and anxiety

Terror Management Theory

Theory/Model:

• Suggests that self-esteem serves as a buffer against existential anxiety by providing a sense of meaning and value.

Sociometer Theory

Theory/Model:

• Proposes that self-esteem acts as a gauge of social acceptance and rejection. High self esteem reflects perceived social inclusion, while low self-esteem signals potential social exclusion.

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

Research Example:

• A widely used tool to measure global self-esteem.

Baumeister’s Work on Self-Esteem

Research Example:

• Examined the effects of self-esteem on behavior and social interactions, highlighting both positive and negative consequences.

Self-Identity

• Involves the sense of who one is and how one fits into the larger social context. It includes personal identity (individual traits, values) and social identity (group memberships)

Social Identity Theory

• Explains how individuals categorize themselves and others into groups, and how this categorization impacts self-concept and intergroup behavior. It posits that people derive part of their self esteem from the groups they belong to.

Henri Tajfel and John Turner

• Who developed the Social Identity Theory in 1979?

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

• Focused on identity formation during adolescence and the ongoing development of a coherent self-concept throughout life.

James Marcia’s Identity Status Model

• Identified four identity statuses (diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, achievement) based on exploration and commitment to various aspects of identity.

Identity Diffusion

Identity Status:

• Lack of exploration and commitment.

Identity Foreclosure

Identity Status:

• Commitment without exploration.

Identity Moratorium

Identity Status:

• Exploration without commitment.

Identity Achievement

Identity Status:

• Exploration followed by commitment.

Self-Perception Theory

• What theory suggests that people infer their attitudes and emotions by observing their own behavior and the context in which it occurs, especially when internal cues are ambiguous.

Bem’s Experiments on Attitude Formation

Research Example:

• Demonstrated that individuals could form attitudes based on their actions, especially in situations where their initial attitudes were unclear

Self-Regulation

• Involves managing one's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to achieve personal goals and adhere to social norms.

Self-Control Theory

Theory/Model:

• Focuses on the ability to control impulses and delay gratification. High level of this is associated with better life outcomes in various domains.

Ego Depletion: Roy Baumeister’s Research

Theory/Model:

• Suggested that self-control resources are finite and can be depleted through exertion, affecting subsequent self-regulation.

Marshmallow Test

Research Example:

• Studied the ability of children to delay gratification and its correlation with later success and self-control.

Self-Discrepancy Theory

• Focuses on the differences between various aspects of the self

Actual Self

Aspect of the Self:

• The self as it is perceived to be.

Ideal Self

Aspect of the Self:

• The self as it is aspires to be.

Ought Self

Aspect of the Self:

• The self one believe they should be.

Attribution Theory

• Focuses on how people explain the causes of behavior and events. It helps us understand how individuals make sense of the world and the underlying motives behind actions.

Naive Psychology

• This is a key theory in attribution developed by Fritz Heider

Internal Attribution

Naive Psychology:

• These involve attributing behavior to personal characteristics, such as traits, motives, or intentions.

• Dispositional

External Attribution

Naive Psychology:

• These involve attributing behavior to external factors, such as the environment or situational pressures.

• Situational

Harold Kelley’s Covariation Model

• A model that suggests that people use three types of information to make attribution.

Consistency

Covariation Model:

• Does the person behave this way in this situation consistently over time?

Distinctiveness

Covariation Model:

• Does the person behave this way only in this particular situation, or across different situations?

Consensus

Covariation Model:

• Do other people behave similarly in the same situation?

Bernard Weiner’s Attribution Theory

• Focused on how attributions affect emotions and motivation. Identified three dimensions of attributions.

Locus of Control

Bernard Weiner’s Attribution Theory:

• Internal vs. External

Stability

Bernard Weiner’s Attribution Theory:

• Whether the cause is stable or unstable over time.

Controllability

Bernard Weiner’s Attribution Theory:

• Whether the individual can control the cause.

Fundamental Attribution Error

• This concept refers to the tendency for observers to overemphasize internal factors and underestimate external factors when explaining others ’ behavior.

Lee Ross

• Who introduced the concept of Fundamental Attribution Error?

Self-Serving Bias

• Refers to the tendency to attribute positive events to internal factors and negative events to external factors. This bias helps individuals maintain self-esteem.

Correspondent Inference Theory

• Suggests that people make inferences about others' dispositions based on their actions. It focuses on how we infer whether an action corresponds to a stable trait.

Jones and Davis

• Who proposed the Correspondent Inference Theory?

Cognitive Heuristics and Biases

• These are mental shortcuts and systematic errors that influence how people perceive, interpret, and make decisions about themselves and others.

• These concepts help explain why people often deviate from rational decision making and judgment.

Availability Heuristic

• This heuristic involves judging the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.

Representativeness Heuristic

• This heuristic involves assessing the probability of an event based on how much it resembles a typical case or prototype.

Anchoring Heuristic

• This heuristic involves relying heavily on the first piece of information encountered (the "anchor") when making decisions.

Framing Effect

• This heuristic involves being influenced by the way information is presented.

Confirmation Bias

• This bias involves favoring information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.

Overconfidence Bias

• This bias occurs when people overestimate the accuracy of their own knowledge or judgments.

Hindsight Bias

• This bias involves seeing events as having been predictable after they have already occurred.

Fundamental Attribution Error

• This bias involves overestimating the influence of personal characteristics and underestimating situational factors when explaining others’ behaviors.

Actor-Observer Effect

• This is a variation of the fundamental attribution error, where people attribute their own actions to situational factors but attribute others' actions to their personal characteristics.

Sunk Cost Fallacy

• This bias involves continuing an endeavor based on the amount of resources already invested, rather than evaluating the current benefits versus costs.

Just-World Hypothesis

• This bias involves believing that the world is fair, and that people get what they deserve.