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Reconquista
The centuries-long campaign by Christian states to recapture territory from Muslim rulers in Spain, ending in 1492 with the fall of Granada.
Vasco da Gama
Portuguese explorer who discovered a sea route to India (1497-1498), marking the beginning of European maritime dominance.
Habsburg-Ottoman Rivalry
Conflict between Christian Europe (Habsburgs) and the Muslim Ottoman Empire, driven by territorial expansion and religious differences.
Centralizing States
Monarchs consolidating power by reducing feudal influences, exemplified by Louis XIV's France and Peter the Great's Russia.
Passion Plays
Religious dramas depicting the suffering, death, and resurrection of Jesus, popular during the Middle Ages and Renaissance.
Martin Luther/Lutheranism
95 Theses challenging Catholic practices, leading to Protestant Reformation; emphasized justification by faith.
John Calvin/Calvinism
Focused on predestination and strict moral discipline, shaping Protestant movements in Switzerland and beyond.
Catholic Reformation (Counterreformation)
Catholic Church's response to Protestantism, including reforms (Council of Trent) and new orders (Jesuits).
St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre
1572 massacre of Huguenots (French Protestants) during religious wars in France.
Methodism
Religious revival movement led by John Wesley, emphasizing personal faith and social reform.
Dutch War of Independence
Also called the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648); the Netherlands gained independence from Spain.
Thirty Years' War
Devastating European conflict (1618-1648) fueled by religious and political rivalries; ended with the Peace of Westphalia.
Glorious Revolution and Constitutionalism
Overthrow of James II in England (1688), establishing parliamentary sovereignty and constitutional monarchy.
Humanism
Intellectual movement emphasizing classical learning, individual potential, and secularism.
Niccolo Machiavelli
Author of The Prince, advocating pragmatic and sometimes ruthless political tactics.
Renaissance Art
Celebrated humanism, perspective, and realism; notable artists include Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo.
Baroque Art
Dramatic, emotional, and ornate style, exemplified by works of Caravaggio and Bernini.
Scientific Revolution/New Sciences
Transformative period of scientific discoveries; emphasis on observation, experimentation, and reason.
Nicolas Copernicus
Proposed heliocentrism, challenging geocentrism.
Galileo Galilei
Used the telescope to support heliocentrism; faced Inquisition for his views.
Isaac Newton
Formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation, unifying physics and astronomy.
Renee Descartes
Philosopher and mathematician; 'Cogito, ergo sum' and analytical geometry.
Colombian Exchange
Transfer of crops (maize, potatoes), animals (horses), and diseases between the Old and New Worlds.
Multi-racial Social Hierarchies
Castas system in the Americas, stratifying society by race and heritage.
Missionaries in the New World
Catholic missions aimed at converting Indigenous populations.
New World Slavery and Labor
Systems like encomiendas and haciendas exploiting Indigenous and African labor.
Virgin of Guadalupe
Religious icon blending Indigenous and Catholic traditions in Mexico.
Songhai Empire
West African empire known for trade, education, and Islam; fell in 1591.
Ethiopia
Christian kingdom in East Africa resisting Muslim incursions and colonialism.
Kongo Kingdom
Central African state, major player in Atlantic slave trade.
Queen Nzinga
Leader of Ndongo and Matamba; resisted Portuguese colonization and slavery.
Middle Passage
Harsh journey of enslaved Africans to the Americas.
Effect of Slave Trade on Africa
Depopulation, social disruption, and economic changes.
Religious Policy in the Mughal Empire
Akbar's tolerance vs. Aurangzeb's orthodoxy.
Neo-Confucianism
Revival of Confucian thought in China, emphasizing morality and societal order.
Civil Service Examination
Merit-based system for selecting officials in Imperial China.
China and Christianity
Jesuit missions, syncretism, and eventual suppression.
Tokugawa Japan: Seclusion
Policy of limiting foreign influence and trade.
Dutch Learning
Study of Western science via Dutch traders.
Japanese Theater and Art
Kabuki, woodblock prints, and the flowering of Edo culture.
John Locke
Natural rights philosophy, influential in liberalism and political theory.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Advocated for the social contract and general will.
Voltaire
Critic of organized religion, champion of free speech and reason.
Adam Smith
Father of modern economics; Wealth of Nations.
Denis Diderot
Editor of the Encyclopédie, spreading Enlightenment ideas.
Carl Linnaeus and Scientific Racism
Developed taxonomy but also laid foundations for racial classifications.
Deism
Belief in a rational, impersonal deity.
Enlightened Despotism
Absolute monarchs adopting Enlightenment ideas, e.g., Frederick the Great.
Conflict between Christian Europe and the Ottoman Empire
A conflict between Christian Europe (Habsburgs) and the Muslim Ottoman Empire over territorial and religious dominance.
Centralizing states
States where monarchs consolidated power, reducing feudal influences (e.g., Louis XIV's France, Peter the Great's Russia).
Passion Plays
Religious dramas depicting the suffering, death, and resurrection of Jesus.
Martin Luther's primary contribution to the Reformation
Posting the 95 Theses, challenging Catholic practices and emphasizing justification by faith.
Counterreformation
The Catholic Church's response to Protestantism, including reforms like the Council of Trent and the founding of the Jesuits.
Thirty Years' War
A European conflict (1618-1648) fueled by religious and political tensions, ending with the Peace of Westphalia.
Glorious Revolution
The overthrow of James II of England in 1688, establishing parliamentary sovereignty and constitutional monarchy.
Humanism
An intellectual movement emphasizing classical learning, individual potential, and secularism.
Niccolo Machiavelli
The author of The Prince, advocating pragmatic and often ruthless political tactics.
Isaac Newton's contribution to science
He formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, unifying physics and astronomy.
Colombian Exchange
The transfer of crops, animals, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds.
Virgin of Guadalupe
A religious icon blending Indigenous and Catholic traditions in Mexico.
Encomienda system
A labor system where Spanish settlers exploited Indigenous peoples for labor and tribute.
Queen Nzinga
A leader who resisted Portuguese colonization and the Atlantic slave trade in Ndongo and Matamba.
Middle Passage
The brutal journey of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic to the Americas.
Effects of the slave trade on Africa
Depopulation, social disruption, and economic changes due to the loss of millions of people.
Civil Service Examination in China
A merit-based system for selecting officials in Imperial China.
Policy of seclusion in Tokugawa Japan
A policy limiting foreign influence and trade, keeping Japan isolated from most outside contact.
Dutch Learning in Japan
The study of Western science and technology through Dutch traders.
John Locke's contribution to political theory
He developed the concept of natural rights, which influenced liberalism and democracy.
Voltaire
An Enlightenment thinker who criticized organized religion and championed free speech and reason.
Deism
The belief in a rational, impersonal deity that created the universe but does not intervene in human affairs.