AP Psych

What research method involves the manipulation of an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable?

An experiment.

In an experiment, the variable that is manipulated by the researcher is called the _.

independent variable

In an experiment, the variable that is measured to see the effect of the manipulation is called the _.

dependent variable

What is the purpose of a control group in an experiment?

To provide a baseline for comparison against the experimental group that receives the treatment.

_ assignment is a procedure used in experiments to ensure that each participant has the same opportunity to be assigned to any given group.

Random

_ selection is a process where each member of a population has an equal chance of being chosen for a study, ensuring the sample is representative.

Random

A specific, testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables is known as a(n) _.

hypothesis

What is an operational definition in the context of psychological research?

A clear, precise, and measurable definition of a variable, allowing for replication.

What is the primary limitation of a correlational study?

It cannot establish a cause-and-effect relationship between variables.

A _ is an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event.

case study

In a _ study, data is collected from a group of participants over an extended period.

longitudinal

In a _ study, researchers compare different population groups at a single point in time.

cross-sectional

What is the measure of central tendency that represents the arithmetic average of a set of scores?

The mean.

What measure of central tendency is the middle score in a distribution when scores are arranged in order?

The median.

The _ is the most frequently occurring score in a distribution.

mode

In a _ distribution, the scores are concentrated at the higher end of the scale.

negatively skewed

A distribution with two distinct peaks is known as a _ distribution.

bimodal

What does statistical significance indicate about the results of a study?

It indicates that the observed results are unlikely to have occurred by chance.

What ethical principle requires that participants be told the true purpose of a study and any deception used after the study is complete?

Debriefing.

The ethical requirement of _ ensures that participants willingly agree to participate in research after being informed of all relevant aspects.

informed consent

Which psychological perspective emphasizes the influence of unconscious thoughts and childhood experiences on behavior?

The psychodynamic perspective.

The _ perspective in psychology focuses on how observable responses are acquired and changed.

behavioral

Which perspective focuses on human growth, potential, and the need for love and acceptance?

The humanistic perspective.

The cognitive perspective in psychology is primarily concerned with what?

Mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, and language.

The basic building block of the nervous system that transmits neural messages is the _.

neuron

Which part of a neuron receives messages from other cells?

Dendrites.

The _ is the long extension of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body.

axon

What is the function of the myelin sheath?

To insulate the axon and speed up the transmission of neural impulses.

The brief electrical charge that travels down an axon is called the _.

action potential

According to the all-or-none principle, a neuron either fires at full strength or _.

not at all

What are neurotransmitters?

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons to transmit signals.

The process by which a sending neuron reabsorbs excess neurotransmitters from the synapse is called _.

reuptake

Which neurotransmitter is involved in movement, learning, attention, and emotion, with an oversupply linked to schizophrenia?

Dopamine.

_ is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter, and an undersupply is linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

GABA

Which neurotransmitter affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal, with an undersupply linked to depression?

Serotonin.

_ enables muscle action, learning, and memory, and its neurons deteriorate with Alzheimer's disease.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A drug that mimics the effects of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor site is called a(n) _.

agonist

A drug that blocks a neurotransmitter's effects is known as a(n) _.

antagonist

The _ nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.

central

Which division of the peripheral nervous system controls the body's skeletal muscles?

The somatic nervous system.

The _ nervous system, a part of the peripheral nervous system, controls glands and involuntary muscles of internal organs.

autonomic

Which division of the autonomic nervous system arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations (fight-or-flight)?

The sympathetic nervous system.

The _ nervous system calms the body, conserving its energy (rest-and-digest).

parasympathetic

Which brain structure, located at the base of the brainstem, controls heartbeat and breathing?

The medulla.

The _ is a nerve network in the brainstem that plays a crucial role in controlling arousal and attention.

reticular formation (or reticular activating system)

What is the primary function of the cerebellum?

Coordinating voluntary movement and balance.

The _, located in the limbic system, is the brain's sensory control center, directing messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex.

thalamus

Which neural structure is linked to the emotions of fear and aggression?

The amygdala.

The _ is a neural structure in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

hippocampus

Which brain structure directs maintenance activities like eating, drinking, and body temperature, and governs the endocrine system via the pituitary gland?

The hypothalamus.

The _ lobe, located at the back of the head, includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

occipital

Which lobe of the cerebral cortex is primarily involved in processing auditory information?

The temporal lobe.

The _ lobe receives sensory input for touch and body position.

parietal

Which lobe is involved in speaking, muscle movements, and in making plans and judgments?

The frontal lobe.

What is the function of Broca's area, typically located in the left frontal lobe?

It directs the muscle movements involved in speech production.

_ area, usually in the left temporal lobe, is involved in language comprehension and expression.

Wernicke's

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience is called _.

plasticity

What is the corpus callosum?

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

Which brain imaging technique measures electrical activity across the brain's surface using electrodes?

Electroencephalogram (EEG).

A(n) _ scan reveals brain activity by tracking where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

positron emission tomography (PET)

Which brain scan uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue, showing brain anatomy?

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

The biological clock that regulates bodily rhythms, such as temperature and wakefulness, on a 24-hour cycle is called the _.

circadian rhythm

What is REM sleep?

A recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur, also known as paradoxical sleep.

The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state are known as _ waves.

alpha

What sleep disorder is characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks, where the sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep?

Narcolepsy.

_ is a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

Sleep apnea

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment is called _.

sensation

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events, is called _.

perception

_ processing starts at the sensory receptors and works up to higher levels of processing.

Bottom-up

_ processing constructs perceptions from sensory input by drawing on our experience and expectations.

Top-down

The minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time is the _.

absolute threshold

What is the difference threshold, also known as the just noticeable difference (JND)?

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time.

The principle that the just noticeable difference of a stimulus is a constant proportion despite variations in intensity is known as _ Law.

Weber's

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation is known as _.

sensory adaptation

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another is a _.

perceptual set

Which retinal receptors detect black, white, and gray, and are necessary for peripheral and twilight vision?

Rods.

Which retinal receptors function in daylight or well-lit conditions and detect fine detail and color?

Cones.

The _ theory of color vision states that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue.

trichromatic (Young-Helmholtz)

The _ theory explains color vision by proposing that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision.

opponent-process

What are Gestalt principles of perception?

Principles that describe how the brain organizes sensory information into meaningful wholes.

The Gestalt principle of _ refers to the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.

grouping

The ability to see objects in three dimensions and judge distance is known as _ perception.

depth

Depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes are called _ cues.

binocular

Depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone are called _ cues.

monocular

What is the function of the semicircular canals in the inner ear?

They are responsible for the vestibular sense, which controls balance.

The system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts is called _.

kinesthesis

In classical conditioning, what is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response.

An unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus is a(n) _.

unconditioned response (UCR)

In classical conditioning, a(n) _ stimulus is an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with a UCS, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

conditioned

A learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus is a(n) _.

conditioned response (CR)

The initial stage in classical conditioning, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response, is called _.

acquisition

What is extinction in the context of classical conditioning?

The diminishing of a conditioned response when a UCS does not follow a CS.

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response is called _.

spontaneous recovery

The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses is known as _.

stimulus generalization

What type of learning involves behavior being strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher?

Operant conditioning.

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely is known as the _.

law of effect

What is positive reinforcement?

Increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus after a response.

_ reinforcement increases behaviors by stopping or reducing a negative stimulus.

Negative

A _ reinforcer is an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

primary

A _ reinforcer gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer.

secondary (or conditioned)