AP LANG

Alliteration: The repetition of the same consonant sound or letter at the beginning of consecutive words or syllables, primarily used for poetic effect or to emphasize certain words. For example, in "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers," the repetition of the 'P' sound is alliteration.

Allusion: An indirect reference to a person, place, thing, or idea of historical, cultural, literary, or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it refers. For example, stating "He was a real Romeo with the ladies" alludes to Shakespeare's romantic character without explicitly explaining who Romeo is.

Allegory: A story, poem, or picture that can be interpreted to reveal a hidden meaning, typically a moral or political one. Characters and events in an allegory often symbolize abstract ideas or historical figures. George Orwell's Animal Farm, for instance, is an allegory for the Russian Revolution, with the animals representing key historical figures and groups.

Ambiguity: The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage. It allows for different interpretations, adding richness or confusion to the text. For example, the sentence "The author is a real character" is ambiguous; 'character' could mean someone with an eccentric personality or a person in a story.

Analogy: An extended comparison between two seemingly dissimilar things, aiming to explain or clarify a complex idea by comparing it to something more familiar. For example, comparing the human brain to a computer to explain how it processes information is an analogy.

Anaphora: The repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences. This rhetorical device is used to create emphasis, rhythm, and emotional impact. A famous example is in Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness…"

Anecdote: A short, often personal, account of an interesting, amusing, or biographical incident, usually used to illustrate a point or to entertain an audience. For example, a speaker might begin a presentation on safe driving with an anecdote about a near-miss experience.

Antecedent: The noun, phrase, or clause to which a later pronoun (such as "it," "she," "he," "they") refers or replaces. For example, in the sentence "Mary saw John, and she waved to him," "Mary" is the antecedent of "she," and "John" is the antecedent of "him."

Antithesis: The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, often in balanced phrases or clauses, to highlight their opposition. For example, in Neil Armstrong's famous quote, "One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind," the contrasting ideas of "small step" and "giant leap" are presented in parallel structure.

Aphorism: A short, astute, and often memorable statement of a general truth, observation, or principle. For example, "Actions speak louder than words" is an aphorism conveying a common truth about behavior.

Apostrophe: A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction (such as liberty or love). It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer, often used to express intense emotion. In Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Juliet exclaims, "Oh, happy dagger! This is thy sheath; there rust, and let me die," directly addressing a non-living object.

Appositive: A word or phrase that renames or further identifies a nearby noun or pronoun, usually placed immediately after the noun it describes. For example, in "My brother, a talented musician, plays the guitar," "a talented musician" is an appositive that renames "My brother."

Archaic diction: The use of words or phrases that are no longer in common use today; antiquated language. This can be employed to evoke a specific historical period, create a formal tone, or add a sense of solemnity. An example would be using "thou art" instead of "you are."

Assertion: An emphatic statement or declaration presented as a fact, often without proof. When an assertion is supported by evidence, it becomes an argument. For instance, stating "Reading daily improves cognitive function" is an assertion.

Asyndeton: The omission of conjunctions (like "and," "or," "but") between parts of a sentence, such as words, phrases, or clauses. This can give the effect of unpremeditated multiplicity, creating a powerful, rapid, and emphatic flow. For example, in Julius Caesar's famous line, "I came, I saw, I conquered," the absence of "and" creates a sense of quick action.

Authority: A reliable, respected source or expert in a particular field. Speakers or writers appeal to authority to lend credibility and weight to their arguments. For instance, citing a medical doctor's opinion on a health issue is an appeal to authority.

Bias: A prejudice or predisposition toward or against one side of a subject or issue. It can be conscious or unconscious and often influences how information is presented or interpreted. A news report that consistently favors one political party over another displays bias.

Chiasmus: (Greek for crossing) A figure of speech by which the order of the terms in the first of two parallel clauses is reversed in the second. It creates a balanced and often memorable statement. An example is "Never let a fool kiss you or a kiss fool you."

Clause: A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence (e.g., "She sang"). A dependent, or subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause (e.g., "When she sang…").

Colloquial/Colloquialism: An informal or conversational use of language, often specific to a particular region or social group. Colloquialisms are common in everyday speech but generally avoided in formal writing. Examples include "y'all" (you all), "gonna" (going to), or "wanna" (want to).

Common ground: Shared beliefs, values, or positions between different parties, often used as a basis for mutual understanding, agreement, or resolution in an argument or discussion. For example, two opposing political groups might find common ground on the importance of education.

Complex sentence: A sentence that includes one independent clause and at least one dependent (subordinate) clause. The dependent clause adds specific details or conditions to the main idea presented in the independent clause. For example, "Although it was raining, we went for a walk."

Concession: A reluctant acknowledgment or yielding to a point made by an opponent in an argument. It demonstrates reasonableness and often strengthens one's own argument by showing a willingness to consider opposing views. For example, saying "While I agree that the new policy has some drawbacks, its benefits far outweigh them" is a concession.

Connotation: That which is implied by a word, beyond its literal dictionary definition (denotation). Connotations often carry emotional or cultural associations. For example, the word "home" has connotations of warmth, comfort, and family, whereas "house" simply denotes a building.

Coordination: Grammatical equivalence between parts of a sentence, often achieved through coordinating conjunctions such as and, or, or but. It links elements of equal grammatical rank. For example, in "She enjoys reading and writing," "reading" and "writing" are coordinated.

Counterargument: A challenge to a position; an opposing argument that seeks to refute or weaken another's claim. A strong argument often anticipates and addresses potential counterarguments. For example, if an argument proposes universal healthcare, a counterargument might focus on the increased tax burden.

Cumulative sentence: An independent clause followed by a series of subordinate clauses or phrases that supply additional detail, explanation, or elaboration. It starts with a main idea and then adds more information. For example, "The cat sat on the mat, fat and fluffy, purring contentedly, watching the mouse hole with lazy eyes."

Declarative sentence: A sentence that makes a statement or expresses a fact, opinion, or observation, and typically ends with a period. For example, "The sun rises in the east."

Deduction: A method of reasoning that moves from general principles or truths to specific conclusions. If the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true. For example: "All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal."

Denotation: The literal dictionary meaning of a word, as opposed to its implied or associated meanings (connotation). For example, the denotation of "blue" is the color, while its connotation might be sadness.

Diction: A writer's or speaker's distinctive choice and arrangement of words. Diction influences the tone, style, and overall effect of a piece of writing. For example, using "commence" instead of "start" reflects a more formal diction.

Didactic: From the Greek, didactic literally means "teaching." Didactic works have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles. Fables, for instance, are often didactic in nature, teaching lessons like "honesty is the best policy."

Documentation: Bibliographic information about the sources used in a piece of writing, typically provided through citations, footnotes, or a bibliography. It lends credibility to the work and allows readers to find the original sources. For example, citing scientific studies in a research paper.

Elegiac: Having a mournful, sorrowful, or contemplative tone, typically expressing lamentation for the dead or commemorating a past loss. Poems written in memory of deceased individuals often adopt an elegiac tone.

Epigram: A brief, witty, and often paradoxical statement or observation. Epigrams are characterized by their conciseness and cleverness. "Mankind must put an end to war, or war will put an end to mankind" by John F. Kennedy is an example.

Ethos: A Greek term referring to the character or credibility of a speaker or writer, used as one of Aristotle's three rhetorical appeals. An appeal to ethos seeks to persuade an audience by demonstrating the speaker's trustworthiness, authority, or expertise. For example, a financial advisor highlighting their years of experience and certifications to clients.

Exigence: An event or catalyst that prompts the speaker or writer to create the rhetorical discourse. It is the urgent need or demand that the rhetoric aims to address or resolve. For example, a natural disaster might be the exigence for a fundraising plea.

Expletive: A figure of emphasis in which a single word or short phrase, usually interrupting normal speech, is used to lend emphasis to the words on either side of the expletive. For example, in "It is important to note that…" 'it is' can be an expletive functioning to emphasize 'important'.

Euphemism: From the Greek for "good speech," euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. They may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness, or to add humor or ironic understatement. For example, saying "passed away" instead of "died."

Hyperbole: Exaggeration for the purpose of emphasis or literary effect, not meant to be taken literally. For example, saying "I'm so hungry I could eat a horse" is a hyperbole to express extreme hunger.

Imagery: Vivid and descriptive language that appeals to one or more of the five senses (sight, smell, taste, touch, hearing), creating mental pictures or sensory experiences for the reader. For example, "The scent of pine and cinnamon filled the air, and the crackle of the fireplace created a cozy atmosphere."

Imperative sentence: A sentence that gives a direct command, request, invitation, warning, or instruction. It typically begins with a verb and often implies an unstated subject of "you." For example, "Close the door!" or "Please consider my offer."

Induction: A method of reasoning that moves from specific observations or facts to a general conclusion. The conclusion is probable, but not necessarily certain. For example: "Every bird I have seen has wings; therefore, all birds have wings."

Inversion: A sentence construction in which the normal grammatical order of words is reversed, particularly when the verb precedes the subject. It is often used for emphasis, poetic effect, or to create a specific rhythm. For example, "Never have I seen such a beautiful sunset" instead of "I have never seen such a beautiful sunset."

Irony: A contradiction or incongruity between what is said and what is meant (verbal irony), or between what happens and what is expected to happen (situational irony), or what a character knows versus what the audience knows (dramatic irony). For example, saying "Oh, fantastic!" when a frustrating event occurs is verbal irony.

Juxtaposition: The placement of two things (characters, concepts, ideas, places, or themes) side by side for comparison or contrast, often to highlight their differences or to create an unusual effect. For example, placing a picture of extreme poverty next to one of immense wealth can highlight social inequality.

Line of Reasoning: The logical progression of ideas that an author follows to support their argument. It demonstrates how claims, reasons, and evidence connect to prove a point, ensuring coherence and persuasiveness. In an essay, this might involve moving from background information to main claims, then to supporting evidence.

Logos: A Greek term that means "word"; it is an appeal to logic or reason, one of Aristotle’s three rhetorical appeals. Logos aims to persuade an audience by using facts, statistics, logical arguments, and rational explanations. For example, a lawyer presenting DNA evidence in court appeals to logos.

Metaphor: A figure of speech or trope through which one thing is spoken of as though it were something else, thus making an implicit comparison without using "like" or "as." For example, in "The classroom was a zoo," the classroom is directly compared to a zoo to suggest chaos.

Metonymy: Use of the name of an attribute or a thing closely associated with something to represent the whole or the thing itself. For example, referring to the power of the monarchy as "the crown" or the U.S. government as "Washington."

Oxymoron: A figure of speech that combines two contradictory terms or elements side by side, creating a paradoxical effect. For example, "jumbo shrimp," "living dead," or "bitter sweet."

Paradox: A statement that appears self-contradictory or absurd but, upon closer examination, reveals a deeper truth or valid proposition. For example, "Less is more" is a paradox that suggests simplicity can lead to greater effectiveness.

Parallelism: The repetition of similar grammatical or syntactical patterns within a sentence or a series of sentences. It creates a sense of balance, rhythm, and emphasis. For example, in "Like father, like son," the phrase structure is parallel.

Parody: A literary or musical work that imitates and exaggerates the prominent features, style, or content of another work, artist, or genre for comic effect or ridicule. Saturday Night Live sketches often parody political figures or popular culture phenomena.

Pathos: A Greek term that refers to suffering, but has come to be associated with broader appeals to emotion; it is one of Aristotle’s three rhetorical appeals. An appeal to pathos seeks to evoke an emotional response (like pity, anger, fear, or joy) from the audience to persuade them. For example, an advertisement showing starving children to solicit donations uses pathos.

Persona: The speaker, voice, or character assumed by the author of a piece of writing. It is the identity or role adopted by a writer or speaker to present themselves to an audience, which may be different from their true self. A comedian might adopt a naive persona for their act.

Personification: Assigning lifelike or human characteristics, qualities, or abilities to inanimate objects, animals, or abstract ideas. For example, "The wind whistled through the trees" or "The flowers danced in the breeze."

Polysyndeton: The deliberate use of a series of repetitive conjunctions (e.g., "and," "or") in quick succession between words, phrases, or clauses, often for emphasis or to create a sense of overwhelming quantity or sustained effort. For example, "I bought apples and oranges and bananas and grapes."

Propaganda: A negative term for writing or communication designed to sway opinion rather than present objective information. It often involves biased or misleading information to promote a particular political cause or point of view. Political campaign ads that only highlight negative aspects of an opponent are often considered propaganda.

Purpose: One’s intention, objective, or goal in a speech or piece of writing. Common purposes include to persuade, inform, entertain, or share a personal experience. For example, the purpose of a textbook is to inform, while a debate speech aims to persuade.

Refute: To discredit an argument, particularly a counterargument, by proving it to be wrong or false through evidence, logic, or proof. For example, a scientist might refute a hypothesis by presenting experimental data that contradicts it.

Rhetoric: The study of effective, persuasive language use according to Aristotle. It involves understanding how language is used to influence and persuade an audience in various contexts. For example, analyzing a political speech to understand its rhetorical strategies.

Rhetorical modes: Patterns of organization developed to achieve a specific purpose in writing or speaking. These modes include, but are not limited to: narration (telling a story), description (presenting sensory details), comparison (showing similarities/differences), cause and effect (explaining reasons and results), definition (clarifying terms), exemplification (providing examples), classification and division (sorting into categories), process analysis (explaining how something is done), and argumentation (persuading with reasons and evidence).

Rhetorical question: A question asked more to produce an effect or to make a point than to summon an answer from the reader/audience. The writer/speaker should indirectly or directly answer this question at some point in their writing or speech. For example, "Are we just going to stand by and let this injustice continue?"

The Rhetorical triangle: A diagram that represents a rhetorical situation as the relationship between the speaker (author/communicator), the subject (message/text), and the audience (recipients/listeners) (also known as the Aristotelian triangle). Understanding these three elements helps analyze or construct persuasive communication.

Satire: An ironic, sarcastic, or witty composition that uses humor, exaggeration, or ridicule to expose and criticize people's stupidity or vices, particularly in the context of contemporary politics and other topical issues. Jonathan Swift's "A Modest Proposal" is a famous example, satirizing attitudes towards poverty in Ireland.

Scheme: A pattern of words or sentence construction used for rhetorical effect, involving a deviation from the ordinary arrangement of words. Schemes manipulate word order or repetition. Examples include parallelism, anaphora, and chiasmus.

Simile: A figure of speech that uses "like" or "as" to compare two seemingly dissimilar things, making a description more emphatic or vivid. For example, "He fought like a lion" or "She is as busy as a bee."

Simple sentence: A statement containing a single subject and a single predicate; it is an independent clause and expresses a complete thought. For example, "The dog barked."

Speaker: A term used for the author, the person whose perspective (real or imagined) is being advanced in a speech or piece of writing, or the voice that narrates a piece. In poetry, the speaker may be a created persona distinct from the poet.

Style: The distinctive quality of speech or writing created by the selection and arrangement of words and figures of speech; it encapsulates an author's unique way of expressing themselves. Style is shaped by diction, syntax, tone, and use of literary devices.

Subordinate clause: Created by a subordinating conjunction (like "although," "because," "when"), a clause that modifies an independent clause and cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. For example, in "She smiled when he arrived," "when he arrived" is the subordinate clause.

Subordination: The grammatical dependence of one syntactical element (a subordinate clause) on another (an independent clause) in a sentence. It helps to show complex relationships between ideas. For example, linking events using terms like "after," "before," or "while."

Syllogism: A form of deductive reasoning in which a conclusion is supported by a major premise (a general statement) and a minor premise (a specific instance of the general statement). For example: "All mammals are warm-blooded (major premise). A whale is a mammal (minor premise). Therefore, a whale is warm-blooded (conclusion)."

Syntax: The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language. Syntax influences the readability, rhythm, and emphasis of a text. For example, short, choppy sentences can create urgency, while long, complex sentences can convey intricate ideas.

Synthesize: Combining or bringing together two or more elements (such as ideas, information, or sources) to produce something more complex, new, or comprehensive. For example, synthesizing research from multiple scientific studies to draw a broader conclusion.

Tone: The speaker’s or writer's attitude toward the subject, the audience, or both, as conveyed through word choice, sentence structure, and other literary elements. Tone can be formal, informal, serious, humorous, ironic, sarcastic, objective, etc.

Trope: Artful diction; the use of language in a nonliteral, figurative way; also called a figure of speech. Tropes involve a change in the meaning of words. Examples include metaphor, simile, irony, hyperbole, and understatement.

Understatement: A figure of speech in which something is presented as being smaller, worse, or less important than it actually is, often used for ironic effect or dry humor. For example, saying "It was a bit chilly" when the temperature is far below freezing.

Voice: In grammar, a term for the relationship between a verb and a noun (active or passive voice). In rhetoric, it refers to the distinctive quality in the style and tone of writing that reveals the author's or speaker's personality or perspective.