Jan 7 EKA (South Africa, India, Mexico)

Panchayati raj

a system of local govt that was first implemented in the 50s but led to corruption. Reinstituted in the 90s, where seats were reserved for women and it went a lot better. Became one of the main ways women could gain political power

Anti price rise movement

a movement of women protesting against the rising costs of food and putting pressure on the Indira government

JP movement

student protests asking for democracy and anti corruption in the face of Indira’s nonsense that called for revolution and provoked Indira’s use of emergency rule

Janata coalition

the coalition government that got Indira out of power after emergency rule with large political differences, brought together by anti

Mandal commission

a project by the Janata coalition govt to study Dalits, other backwards classes, and how to improve their quality of life.

Golden temple

a huge scandal where Bhindranwale (sikh fundamentalist) and his followers took over a Sikh holy site and trapped many inside. Indira was forced to free hostages, which turned into a huge scandal because people got killed

Operation blue star

The operation that Indira ordered to stop the Golden Temple hostage situation that became a huge scandal for her because people got killed. Indira was assassinated by a Sikh bodyguard in retaliation for this.

BJP

also janata party, a conservative political party that opposed congress

Shah Bano

A case where a muslim woman wanted to get divorced but muslim law gave her not enough alimony to survive. She said she should get her case seen under Indian law that would give her more alimony, won. Case created hindu/muslim tension

Gustavo Díaz Ordaz

President of Mexico during Tlatelolco and the Mexican Miracle. 1964 to 1970

José López Portillo

President of Mexico through the oil boom, but left office before the bust began. He was responsible for govt spending attempting to invest in oil that eventually backfired and left it in debt after the crash. 1976 to 1982.

Miguel de la Madrid

President of Mexico during Mexico city earthquake, covering up the damage it caused and refusing to provide aid. 1982 to 88.

Carlos Salinas

President of Mexico who stole the election from Cárdenas, made NAFTA, ended the ejido system, created PRONASOL and reinstituted church rights. His minimal reforms were the first step to the end of PRI dominance, which Zedillo would accomplish. 1988

Ernesto Zedillo

President of Mexico who served after Salinas. The former PRI candidate was assassinated, so he was the only choice. He was president through the peso collapse, made the IFE autonomous, and generally created significant reforms to election spending and regulation, as well as making it so the supreme court was not elected by the president but instead by the senate, that would turn Mexico from a one party system to a truer democracy. 1994

Vicente Fox

First non PRI president in mexico. Won due to Zedillo reforms

Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas

A PRD leader who won the 1988 presidential election, but it was then stolen from him by Salinas and the PRI establishment. Later won the mayorship of Mexico city in 1997. The leader of the first successful political run against PRI

Luis Donaldo Colosio

The PRI presidential candidate who was assassinated on the campaign trail, making it so Zedillo had to take over.

Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)

The most important party in Mexico until the 2000s. They had total control over the government, making it into a one party system through corruption and rigging of elections. They were supposedly center

National Action Party (PAN)

Center right party focused on business and ending what they saw as a government favoring labor over business. Focused in the North of Mexico.

Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD)

A Mexican political party made up of former PRI members before it split off in opposition to its anti democratic values. Cárdenas was a significant member of this party.

Corporatism

Govt control of unions and labor

El Dedazo

The method PRI used to choose who would be the new president. No primary elections, the current president just chose who he wanted and that person would, very often, become his successor.

Mexican Miracle

Post revolutionary growth of the Mexican economy, fueled by ISI. It was unexpected because Mexico had just gotten out of a huge revolutionary war.

Tlatelolco Massacre

The result of large scale student protests over police brutality, corruption, etc. The president wanted to stop these protests because the 1968 summer olympics was happening and he wanted to make Mexico look good on an international stage. At a gathering protesters were massacred by Mexican troops, which was then promptly covered up by the PRI government.

Agribusiness

Large scale farms, mainly located in the North. From the 40s

Import substitution industrialization (ISI)

Incentives meant to get Mexicans to buy Mexican products and grow the economy. Private businesses were able to get easy loans, tariffs on international goods made Mexican goods cheaper, and corporatism allowed the government to control business inside Mexico.

Neoliberalism

a political point of view used by Salinas in Mexico. Believed in free market capitalism, deregulation of business and cuts to government spending. Salinas’ neoliberal beliefs inspired NAFTA, PRONASOL and the end of the ejido system.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Basically an international bank that gives loans to struggling countries. They lent to Mexico several times, but their loans come with terms such as significant spending cuts on social programs.

COCEI (Coalition of Workers, Peasants, Students of the Isthmus)

A group formed by Zapotec native people to address the conditions of indigenous living in Oaxaca (south). Left/socialist leaning and ran for local elections and advocated community solutions. When they started winning elections they were ousted by PRI and Paxac

Victim’s Coordinating Council (CUD)

A citizens organizing group that helped provide disaster relief in the wake of the 1985 mexico city earthquake. For many it was their first experience organizing and was a rebirth of citizen activism in Mexico.

NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement)

An agreement between the US, Canada and Mexico that allowed for free trade between the countries. As a result, the Mexican economy grew and was able to further industrialize, though it promoted big business and left many everyday Mexicans without a way to support themselves as their farming couldn’t compete.

Maquiladoras

A factory located in Mexico that is often duty and tariff free and cheaper for US manufacturers to create their goods in because of the lack of regulations and lower wages. Companies use them to make products for cheap, boosting the Mexican economy but supplying citizens with low wage jobs.

Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN)

A terrorist organization, which didn’t really hurt anybody but used violence to threaten a govt. Published their manifesto on the same day NAFTA went into effect. The govt retaliated but couldn’t stop the movement. Govt was eventually forced to sign the San Andres Accords saying Native communities had the right to self determination but never really enforced it.

San Andres Accords

A document signed between EZLN and the PRI government giving more rights to indigenous populations, though it was never really enforced. An example of how PRI’s policy and actions differed greatly.

Federal Election Institute (IFE)

A mexican govt body that ensures free and fair elections. It was created by Salinas in 1990 as a result of outrage over the stolen 1988 election. It didn’t really do anything though until Zedillo made it an independent commission that PRI couldn’t mess with in 1996, which is when it really started working to ensure the quality of Mexican elections. It worked really well and for the first time candidates from other parties than PRI had a fighting chance.

Dirty war

a crackdown by the Mexican government during the 1960s and 70s on leftist movements.

Los Halcones

the paramilitary unit used during the dirty war to silence and kill protesters and leftists.

1977 reforms

a round of reforms in Mexico that allowed citizens to organize political parties, released political prisoners, and proportional representation in congress. The reforms were motivated by parties other than PRI basically giving up, which PRI felt looked bad and made them appear as a sham democracy, threatening their power.

Pemex

state oil company that managed the 1970s oil boom. A lot of money was spent improving oil infrastructure which then backfired during the 1980s oil crash.

PRONASOL

Basically a program that made it so states could go halfsies with the federal govt for improvements. This Salinas policy made it so a country that had to dramatically cut its wellfare spending thanks to the IMF could continue to provide for people. It was like a grassroots thing which encouraged community action.

Eijido

Communal ownership of land that allowed for local farmers to make food for themselves and their communities. This was ended by Salinas, who sold it off as part of his neoliberal economic reforms encouraging more free trade.

National party

Party of afrikaners who created apartheid

DF Malan

the first prime minister under apartheid

Petty apartheid

apartheid that separated people in everyday life

Prohibition of marriages act-no interracial marriages

Immorality act

Grand apartheid

apartheid policies that forced different races to live in different areas

Townships

designated ghetto-like areas of cities where non-whites were forced to reside

Banthustans/Homelands

Reserves on which Africans were required to live if they didn’t have a work permit

ANC

primary political party fighting against apartheid, eventually first non-national party winner of elections

Albert Luthuli

President of the ANC until the late 60s, a moderate who made it hard for the ANC to be painted as extreme

Banning

limits on people’s ability to give speeches, gather in public, etc. A way to censor people without them having committed any crime.

ANC Youth League

A more confrontational branch of the ANC that pushed for more protests, coordinated resistance. Led by Mandela, eventually directed the rest of the ANC’s actions

Nelson Mandela

Anti-apartheid activist, first president of South Africa after the end of apartheid. He was a founder of the ANC youth league and created the defiance campaign

South African Communist Party (SACP)

Communists, thought capitalism had created apartheid and had strong relations with labor unions and the ANC

Pan Africanist Congress (PAC)

Broke away from the ANC because they thought the party was collaborating too much with non-Africans. Had strong relations with other independent African nations

Robert Sobukwe

Founder of PAC

May Stayaway

A 1950 protest where people (66% of Africans) didn’t go to work. Led to the suppression of communism act where the govt called anything it didn’t like communism and ordered a lot of bannings.

Separate representation of voters act

A 1951 law denying coloureds the right to vote, protested by the black sash and torch commandos, two groups of mainly white liberals

Defiance Campaign

A campaign by the ANC youth league that organized mass (non-violent) strikes and protests in an attempt to overwhelm prisons. Wasn't super successful but was a good way for the ANC to get experience organizing

Bantu education act

govt changed curriculum for non-white schools to make it worse, produce laborers. in response the ANC asked kids to protest by not going to school, most non-white kids stopped going.

Freedom charter

A manifesto adopted by anti-apartheid groups stating the goals of the movement. Everyone who signed was arrested in the treason trial, led to much anti-apartheid leadership being put in jail and having to operate more secretly.

Sophiatown

a township that was occupied by different races and cleared out by Apartheid govt. residents protested but the army responded and forced them to back down.

Sharpeville Massacre

anti-apartheid groups organized pass protests, one protest marched to the police station and tried to get arrested. Police fired on the crowd leading to 70ish deaths. Was a turning point in international perception of South Africa becoming more negative and the apartheid govt banned the ANC and PAC

made anti-apartheid movement reconsider if non-violence was actually working, led to adopting limited violence

MK

armed wing of the ANC, carried out sabotage on government buildings and resisted violently.

POQO

armed wing of PAC, largest armed organization in the 60s. Shut down after massive govt raid

Liliesleaf raid

a raid on an MK base that captured Leaders. those captured were put on trial in the rivonia trial, where they were sentenced to prison. this is how Nelson Mandela was put into prison.

Steve Biko

Anti-apartheid leader who created the idea of Black consciousness, that non-whites had to de-colonialize their perceptions of the world in order to be free, and organized non-violent strikes in the 70s. killed in detention by police after Soweto uprising

South African Students Organization (SASO)

Led by Steve Biko, an organization of non-white college students asking for an end to apartheid.

Soweto Uprising

10-20k students in Johannesburg protest govt imposing Afrikaans in schools, police responded with violence killing hundreds and gaining international attention.

PW Botha

National party president from 1973-89 who gave more power to the military, banned any and all apartheid groups, and generally facilitated a crackdown on rights and protest.

tricameral

the type of legislature created by Botha to try and appease protesters, houses for each racial group, sparked large protest because it wasn’t actually a fair system that would give non-whites any say

United Democratic Front (UDF)

coalition of 400+ anti apartheid organizations that created protests, goals alligned with freedom charter.

Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU)

alliance of trade unions whose goals aligned with freedom charter

state of emergency

declared in 1985 after police killed people at a funeral and violence erupted in response. The country got super violent, the police cracked down even harder, torture was common

FW de Klerk

president from 1989 to the end of apartheid, started unbanning anti-apartheid organizations and compromised to end apartheid to end the violence breaking out in the country.

civil cooperation bureau

Task forces to get rid of all anti-apartheid people, killed, tortured, and even went into other countries to kill anti-apartheid leaders there.

Mass Democratic Movement

COSATU and UDF linked up to coordinate action against the govt in 1989

Conservative party

right wing party formed in late 80s, wanted the NP to stop allowing change fearing it would lead to African oppression of Afrikaners

AWB

south African nazi knock-offs from the late 80’s who tried to physically confine non-whites to their tribal lands

Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA)

convention where apartheid govt and anti-apartheid groups came together to negotiate the end of apartheid.

Sunset Clause

both groups were scared that the other was going to try and oppress/steal away power once elections started and this stalled negotiations. To fix this joe slovo came up with the sunset clause, where parties with over 5% of the vote would all get some say in govt for the first 5 years and a government of national unity would be created

nationalized

the government ________ education in order to combat low literacy and education levels. They also started providing meals in schools to incentivize attendance

Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP)

Growth, Employment and redistribution program (GEAR)

land redistribution

labor relations act

Post-apartheid policy creating a mediation council to resolve strikes

employment equity act

post-apartheid policy pressuring businesses to hire marginalized groups

treatment action campaign

group that challenged lack of HIV/ AIDS response in court, won, and got the South African govt to provide HIV/AIDS care.

Truth and reconciliation comission

an investigation in 1995 led by Desmond Tutu about the harms, victims, perpetrators of violence during apartheid that gave people the chance to come forward and potentially gain amnesty for their crimes. united country, helped healing from past violence

Inkatha Freedom Party

a Zulu nationalist group that the NP supplied weapons to in order to divide black population against itself. this group went on to carry out the boipatong massacre with NP help.