AICE Psychology Paper 2

conditions

different situations

independent variable

variable that is manipulated/changed

dependent variable

the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

control group

the group that does not receive the experimental treatment

controlled variables

are kept constant/remain the same

what is the reason for the controlled variable?

to ensure that changes in the DV were REALLY caused by the IV

procedure

what the experimenter must do in order to collect their data

standardized

each step is kept exactly the same

standardized procedure

when each step in a procedure is kept exactly the same for every participant

standardized instructions

the use of the exact same environment/task

Examples of standardized instructions

-Lighting

-Room layout

-Temperature

-Noise

Main features of an experiment

-data is compared from the exp. group or condition with data in the control group to draw conclusions

-IVs and DVs

-controlled variables

-standardized procedure/instructions so that all participants have the same experience and so that the study can be replicated

laboratory

any setting over which the experimenter has a high level of control

Does working in a lab setting allow the researches to control many variables?

Yes

validity

the extent to which the researcher si measuring what they think they are measuring and the extent to which the findings are useful and meaningful.

Is it valid?

Did it measure what it claimed it was going to?

ecological validity

the extent to which behaviour that participants demonstrate during research relates to how they would behave in their real lives.

some cases with low ecological validity

-Milgram

-Perry et al.

-Pozzulo et al.

-Dement & Kleitman

some cases with high ecological validity

-Piliavin

-Fagen et al.

Weakness of a lab experiement

-Low in ecological validity

-Validity may be affected by demand characteristics

Flip for a Fact!

Results of lab experients sgould only be generalized to every day life with caution because when people are in a real-life setting, they may behave differently

demand characteristics

cues in the set-up of the experiment, including how the researcher speaks and behaves, that provides clues about the aims and/or hypotheses of the study

Flip For a Fact!

if participants are affected by demand chracteristics, they may act in a way they feel the researches want them to, rather than they normally would (DECREASED VALIDITY)

reliabilty

consistency of measurement

Is it reliable?

Will my Results be Replicated if I Repeat the experiment? (Three R'S)

strengths of lab experiment

-high reliability

-high control of extraneous variables

-should be more ethical because participants know they are taking apart in research (this is NOT always true because Milgram..!)

highly standardized

all participants within each group/condition have the same experience as each other

ethics

a system of moral principles

Flip for a Fact!

Usually in lab experiemnts:

-Participants hvae given consent and right to withdraw

-Know they are taking part in research

-Researches are able to debrief following any deception

What do ethical guidelines help to ensure?

That participants are treated with respect and that they leave the research setting in the same psychological state as they were in when they arrived

field experiment

experiment that is done in a real world seeting/natural environment

Flip for a Fact!

The natural environment of a field experiment means that there may be uncontrolled variables both within and between groups/conditions

case that was a field experiment

-Piliavin et al.

weakness of field experiments

-less control of variables

-uncontrolled, situational variables make it hard to draw firm conclusions

-limited ability to completely standardize procedures

-difficult to test reliability

-usually unethical

strengths of a field experiment

- higher ecological validity

-decreased risk of demand characteristics

-more generalisible to other situations

Why are field experiments usually unethical?

-Participants don't know they are taking part in research

-Consent cannot be sought

-No right to withdraw

-Can lead to psychological harm

-Deception

strength of control groups/conditions

when making comparisons between data obtained in the different conditions, the control group provides a baseline to which the data from the experimental group can be compared

what do control groups allow researchers to ensure?

allows them to cofirm that that the results of their study are due to the manipulation of the IV

examples of cases that were lab experiments

-bandura et al.

-pozzulo et al.

independent measures design

participants are put into two or more different groups, relating to the levels of the IV

examples of cases that used the independent measures design

-andrade

-holzel

random allocation

when researcher are able to randomly allocate participants into either the exp. or control group

what is a way that researchers can radnomly allocate participants?

-they assign each participant a numner

-then, they use a random number generator to select participants for the 2 or more groups

particpant variables

when members of one group all share some common characteristics

examples of participant variables

-gender

-age

-level of intellignece/empathy

Flip for a Fact!

When you have participant variables, it is impossible to know whether the differences in the DV result from the manipulation of the IV or the participant variables

strengths of random allocation

increases validity

repeated measures design

when the same group of participants provide data relating to both levels of the IV; they act as their own control group

Flip for a Fact!

when the repeated measures design is used, participant variables cannot affect the validity of the data as every participant takes part in both the exp and control conditions

weaknesses of repeated measures design

-demand characteristics

-order effects

-decreases validity

what happens if a participant catches on the cues of an aim?

they will consciously or unconsciously, change their behavior in reponse to these cues and this reduces the spontaneity of their behavior, meaning they may not behave as they usually would

why would a participant not behave as they usually would when they catch on to the demand characteristics?

because they want to be please the experimenrer or behave in ways that they think are expcted of them

practice effect

a type of order effect in which people's performance improves over time because they become practiced at the dependent measure (not because of the manipulation or treatment)

fatigue effect

deterioration in participant performance with repeated testing

effects of practice effect

-increased motivation

-boredom

-tiredness

-strain of concentrating in the first condition

Counterbalancing

A method of controlling for order effects in a repeated measure design by either including all orders of treatment or by randomly determining the order for each subject

how can researchers reduce the impact of orders effect?

they can leave a significant time period between first and second conditions

how do researchers implement counterbalancing?

participants are put into one of two groups: group one does the experimental condition first and then the control condition, and group two does the control condition first and then the experimental condition.

what is the matched pairs design?

when each participant in the expiremental group will be matched with a participant in the control group on a number of revelant facts. this means for every participant in the exp group, the control group will contain a person who is very similar to them on key variables that might have otherwise affected the DV.

randomised control trials

a special type of experiment that uses various techniques to increase validity and they, in which participants might be randomly assigned to either an exp or control group

why do experimenters use a placebo?

to know whether the positive effect of a new drug is due to the drug itself or expectancy effects

expectancy effects

when particpants expect their symptoms to improve once they begin the new course of treatment

how do researchers reduce expectancy effects?

using placebo treatment

how do researchers implement the placebo effect?

1. participants in the control group receive a treatment that is administered in exactly the same way as the real treatments

2. in the case of oray administered tablets, the tablets look, smell, and taste like the real drug but has no active ingridients

3. parts. do not know whether they have received the real drug or the placebo

single-blind design

when participants do not know whether they are in the experimental(drug) or control(placebo) group

double-blind design

when neither the participant nor the researcher knows if they are in the control or experimental group

placebo effect

improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement

triple-blind design

when the person analysing the data, researcher, and participant are unaware if someone is in the control or experimental group

strengths of RCTs

-reduces experimenter bias

-reduces demand characteristics

-assessment of participant remains objective

-high reliability

-can be tested for inter-rater reliability

-all participants are treated the same way

weakness of RCTs

-valid, informed consent is not possible

participants assigned to the control group do not hace access to treatments that could significantly improve their quality of life

self-reports

a method of research where the participant responds to either open or

closed questions.

examples of self-reports

-questionnaires

-interviews

closed questions

offer a fixed choice of answers

likert scale

when the part. can circle or tick the response to show that the extent to which they agree with a statment

rating scale

a numerical value is assigned to specific behavior that is listed in the scale

contingency questions

questions that depend on the answers to previous questions

dichotomous questions

These are open ended questions that require a "yes" or "no" response.

forced choice

a scale that a participant is 'forced' to make a response to express an opinion. (cannot answer neutral)

what do fixed-choice questionnaires produce?

quantitaive data, which allows objective comparisons to be made between people (this may lack validity though as fixed responses may not match watch a participant wants to say)

open questions

questions that usually start with "why" and "how" and allow parts. to express their opinion more freely. they encourage parts. to give detailed, qualitative answers.

how is data provided from open questions called

it is described as rich because it allows the researcher to understand the complexity of the issues they are asking about. this is because parts. are able to explorethe reasons behind their initial thoughts and feelins in greater depth.

Flip for a Fact!

Open-ended questions also allow the researcher to understand the diversity of an issue as the answers provided by the participants may be very different from one another.

advantages of closed questions

-data is quantitative, so it can be categorised and counted

-can be analyzed using measures of a central tendency and displaed visually using graphs and charts

-fixed/forced-choice rating scales do not allow parts. to avoid answering questions

disadvantages of closed questions

-limited choices reduces validity

-fixed range of answers means parts. cannot freely express their opinions

-their views may not fit with the fixed-choice answers

advantages of open questions

-qualitative data so it is rich and

-gives deeper insight

disavantages of open quesrions

-data can be harder to analyze

-due to their huge amount of data, analysis can be time-consuming

-subjective

-data may be interpreted differently, decreasing reliability

what to avoid when creating questionnaires

-double barrelled questions

-ambiguous (unclear) questions

-techinical terms that are not understandable

-emotive language

advantages of questionnaires

-relatively quick/easy to obtain the views of a large number of participants

-results may be representative

-parts. may be less likely to give socially desirable answers because they are not answering face-toface

disadvantages of questionnaires

-parts. may be less willing to elaborate fully on answers to open questions when writing

-limiting the depth of data collected

-parts. may still give socially desirable answers

postal questionnaires

questionnaires that are posted out to the sample

advantages of postal questionnaires

-relatively quick and easy to obtain the views parts.

-representative results

-can be posted anywhere in the world

-location is not an issue

disadvantages of postal questionnaires

-return rate is low due to effort of sending them back

-parts. may not have motivation to do them/send them back

-expensive to post

interviews

when the researcher speaks directly to the individual participant, asks them questions, and records their responses

Flip for a Fact!

interviews are generally done on smaller # of parts. bc they are far more time-consuming to conduct

how can interviews be conducted?

face-to-face or by telephone

Flip for a fact!

interviews can ask both open and closed questions, but are more likely to ask open questions as people are often willing to speak in greater depth about a topic than they are to write about it in a questionnaire

structured interviews

h e researcher has a pre-determined, fixed list of questions; all participants are asked the same questions, in the same order.

unstructured interviews

-The main topics are pre-determined.

-There will be a research question that steers the direction of the interview; the interviewer does not follow a set list of questions.

-Questions are based on whatever the participant chooses to talk about.

semi-structured interviews

-The researcher has a number of

key questions that guide the

interview, but they can be asked in any order and the interviewer may introduce new questions based on what the participant

says.

-The interviewer is also able to ask follow-up questions to clarify

anything that the participant has said and to probe more deeply into interesting or unexpected areas.

-Some of the questions will be the same for each participant but not all.

advantages of interviews

-greater opportunity to gather rich, in-depth data

-semi or unstructured interviews allow a good insight into the area they are researching

-face to face interviews allow researchers to gather info about non-verbal communication

-increases validity because cues about the person's emotional state and how comfy they are with the interview