Important People in Psychology

Mary Whiton Calkins

* first female president of the American Psychological Association
* memory, dreams and the self

Charles Darwin

* functionalism
* evolutionary theory + natural selection theory
* huge influence → how psychologists viewed the mind

Dorothea Dix

* advocated for humane treatment of the mentally ill
* created first generation of american mental asylums

G. Stanley Hall

* first president of the APA
* **developmental** and **evolutionary** theory
* created:
* “genetic psychology” concept
* Theory of Adolescence (beginning of new life / storm and stress)

William James

* functionalism - mental states are identified by what they do rather than by what they are made of
* “stream of consciousness” = consciousness is best described as an uninterrupted stream
* trained Mary Whiton Calkins

Margaret Floy Washburn

* motor theory of consciousness
* animal behavior
* second female president of APA

motor theory of consciousness

Margaret Floy Washburn’s theory

“thought or consciousness could be seen in bodily movements. consciousness is the result of sensation and motion”

Wilhelm Wundt

* founded modern experimental psychology
* method of introspection = systematic examination of subjective mental experiences through self-reporting thoughts

method of introspection

Wilhelm Wundt’s theory

= systematic examination of subjective mental experiences through self-reporting thoughts

Milgram

famous experiment → human tendency to obey commands issued by an authority figure

Zimbardo

famous experiment → people will readily conform to the social roles they are expected to play

Phineas Gage

Unit: Biopsychology

* accident helped teach us that different parts of the brain play a role in different functions
* frontal lobe damage
* → what the frontal cortex does with regard to personality

Broca

Unit: Biopsychology

discovery of the speech **production** center of the brain

Wernicke

Unit: Biopsychology

discovery of the speech **comprehension** center of the brain

Sperry

Unit: Biopsychology

* split-brain research

Gazzaniga

Unit: Biopsychology

* extended Sperry’s split-brain research on cats to people
* “two halves of the brain experience the world quite differently”

Hobson and McCarley

Unit: Biopsychology

* activation-synthesis dream theory = dreams occur when the mind tries to make sense of the activity in the brain which is taking place whilst someone sleeps

Hilgard

Unit: Biopsychology

neodissociationist theory of hypnosis

Freud

* founder of psychoanalysis
* conscious and unconscious;
* the id, ego, and superego;
* dream interpretation;
* psychosexual development

Fechner

Unit: Sensation and Perception

* a founder of psychophysics
* transforming psychology into a quantitative science,
* the Weber-Fechner Law = subjective sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity

Weber

Unit: Sensation and Perception

* a founder of psychophysics
* just-noticeable difference

Hubel and Wiesel

Unit: Sensation and Perception

* “ocular dominance” = some neurons were only responsive to information that came from a single eye

Pavlov

Unit: Learning

* classical conditioning

Tolman

Unit: Learning

* cognitive behaviorism,
* cognitive maps + the theory of latent learning
* famous rat maze experiment

Thorndike

Unit: Learning

* first to apply psychological principles to the area of learning
* concept of reinforcement
* operant conditioning

B. F. Skinner

Unit: Learning

* argued that the goal of a science of psychology was to predict and control an
* organism's behavior from its current stimulus situation and its history of reinforcement

John Watson

Unit: Learning

* Popularized Behaviorism
* famous experiment → classical conditioning on child

Bandura

Unit: Learning

* social learning theory
* self-efficacy

Seligman

Unit: Learning

* learned helplessness

Wolfgang Köhler

Unit: Learning

* **insight learning** = sudden understanding of the relation between a problem and a solution
* monkeys

Rescorla

Unit: Learning

* **associative learning** = emphasized the associations between unconditioned and conditioned stimuli

Garcia

Unit: Learning

* taste aversion

Premack

Unit: Learning

\
famous **principle** → “%%more probable behaviors (rewards)%% __will reinforce__ ==less probable behaviors==” → increases the likelihood of compliance through **positive reinforcement**

ex. First ==clean your room==, then you can %%play video games%%. 

ex. Get your ==homework done==, then you can %%watch TV%%. 

ex. If you ==eat your vegetables==, you can have %%ice cream%%

Ebbinghaus

Unit: Cognition

forgetting curve

George Miller

Unit: Cognition

\
short-term memory can hold between 5 and 9 pieces of information (7±2)

Loftus

Unit: Cognition

\
one of the nation's leading experts on memory

* misinformation effect
* false memory
* eyewitness testimony (EWT) is fragile and can easily be distorted

→ Facts, ideas, suggestions and other post-event information can modify our memories

Daniel Schachter

Unit: Cognition

\
7 sins of memory

Kahneman and Tversky

Unit: Cognition

\
* cognitive biases (caused by fast but fallible cognitive strategies = heuristics)


* loss aversion = losses have a greater emotional impact than a gain of the same amount

Chomsky

Unit: Cognition

\
* universal grammar = all languages hold similar structures and rules

Genie

Unit: Cognition

\
victim of severe abuse, neglect, and social isolation

* helped study linguistics and abnormal child psychology

Erikson

Unit: Development

8 stages of psycho==**social**== development

(each having a crisis to overcome)

* neo-freudian: believed people had to resolve major conflicts (based on SOCIAL interactions, not sexual pleasures, like Freud) before advancing to next developmental stage

Harlow

Unit: Development

\
maternal-separation, dependency needs, and social isolation experiments on rhesus monkeys

Piaget

Unit: Development

\
4 stages of @@**cognitive**@@ development

Vygotsky

Unit: Development

\
Cognitive Development:

* parental instruction + environmental factors → development
* **parents** provide scaffolding for children’s cognitive development

\
**Zone of Proximal Development** = distance between where learner is vs. where learner *could be*

Kohlberg

Unit: Development

\
6 stages of @@**moral**@@ development

Gilligan

Unit: Development

\
* development of women's morality and sense of self
* men prioritize justice when making moral decisions, women prioritize a care orientation

Ainsworth

Unit: Development

\
* theory of attachment
* 4 attachment styles
* “Strange Situation” experiment

Baumrind

Unit: Development

\
styles of parenting: authoritarian, authoritative and permissive

Lorenz

Unit: Development

\
* founding fathers of the field of ethology, the study of animal behavior
* **imprinting**

Kübler-Ross

Unit: Development

\
five stages of grief

Maslow

Unit: Motivation + Emotion

\
hierarchy of needs

Ekman

Unit: Motivation + Emotion

study of **emotions** in relation to **facial expressions**

Selye

Unit: Motivation + Emotion

“general adaptation syndrome,” which could lead to


1. shock,
2. alarm
3. and eventually exhaustion

Schachter and Singer

Unit: Motivation + Emotion

\
two factor theory of emotion

Lazarus

Unit: Motivation + Emotion

\
model of stress and coping

* stress depends on the person's cognitive appraisal of the stressful event, and the subsequent type of behavioral coping strategy used.

Lewin

Unit: Motivation + Emotion

\
* founder of modern social psychology
* expanding on gestalt theories and applying them to human behavior
* experiential learning = learning from experience
* Field Theory = behavior is the result of the individual and the environment

LeDoux

Unit: Motivation + Emotion

\
first to discover that it is the **amygdala** that produces a **behavioral response when we feel a threat**

Mischel

Unit: Motivation + Emotion

\
* personality theory and social **psychology**
* behavior is not simply the result of his or her traits, but fundamentally dependent on situational cues
* marshmallow test

Kinsey

Unit: Motivation + Emotion

\
* Kinsey believed that sexuality is fluid and subject to change over time
* sexual behavior comprises __more than physical contact__. It also includes desire, arousal, attraction, and fantasy

Binet

Unit: Intelligence + Testing

\
invented the first practical IQ test

Terman

Unit: Intelligence + Testing

\
* Further development and refinement of the Binet-Simon IQ test

Galton

Unit: Intelligence + Testing

\
* negative contributions to psychology:
* believed that intelligence and most other physical and mental characteristics of humans were inherited and biologically based
* operationalized intelligence as **reaction time**

Spearman

Unit: Intelligence + Testing

\
two-factor theory proposes that intelligence has two components: general intelligence ("g") and specific ability ("s").

Wechsler

Unit: Intelligence + Testing

\
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Cattell

Unit: Intelligence + Testing

\
* fluid versus crystallized intelligence
* 16-factor personality model

Sternberg

Unit: Intelligence + Testing

\
triarchic theory of intelligence

Gardner

Unit: Intelligence + Testing

\
theory of multiple intelligences

Flynn

Unit: Intelligence + Testing

\
The Flynn effect

Alfred Adler

Unit: Personality

\
Neo-Freudian

* **Inferiority Complex** = **unconscious** feelings of inadequacy
* **Compensation** = attempts to make up for deficiencies (real or imagined)

Jung (YOONG)

Unit: Personality

\
Neo-Freudian

* **collective unconscious** = instinctive memories common to all humans like genetic code
* **archetypes** = ancient images that appear in art/literature
* **animus vs. anima** = masculine vs. feminine aspects of personality
* introversion vs. extraversion

Horney

Unit: Personality

\
Neo-Freudian

* founder of __**feminine psychiatry**__
* __**gender power**__ __**imbalances**__ affect
* → mental health
* → development of psychological theories

\
**Basic Anxiety** **=** sense of uncertainty and isolation

3 coping behaviors:

* toward others
* against others
* away from others

Allport

Unit: Personality

\
three-tiered hierarchy of personality traits, consisting of:

* Cardinal traits: Rare, but strongly deterministic of behavior.
* Central traits: Present to varying degrees in all people
* **Secondary traits**: These are traits that are only present under certain conditions and circumstances

Eysenck

Unit: Personality

= believed personality comes from genetics

* 3 scales
* introversion vs extroversion
* stability vs neuroticism
* self-control vs psychoticism

developed the concept of neuroticism, arguing that it was a **biological** form of emotional instability

Costa and McCrae

Unit: Personality

\
NEO Personality Inventory (or NEO-PI) to measure neuroticism, extraversion, and openness

Rogers

Unit: Personality

\
* founders of humanistic psychology.
* client-centered approach to psychotherapy
* unconditional positive regard

Rosenhan

Unit: Clinical Psychology

\
famous experiment → determine the validity of psychiatric diagnosis

\
1973 study aimed to investigate the reliability of staff in psychiatric hospitals to identify the sane from the insane

Szasz

Unit: Clinical Psychology

\
“The Myth of Mental Illness” questioned the legitimacy of clinical psychology field

believes that **the concept of mental illness is not only logically absurd but has harmful consequences**

Aaron Beck

Unit: Clinical Psychology

\
believed that depression-prone individuals develop a negative self-schema

* cognitive triad

Albert Ellis

Unit: Clinical Psychology

\
rational emotive behavior therapy = cognitive theory developed for confronting and changing irrational beliefs and behaviors

Wolpe

Unit: Clinical Psychology

\
* systematic desensitization

developed the Subjective Units of Disturbance Scale (SUDS) for assessing the level of subjective discomfort or **psychological** pain

Linehan

Unit: Clinical Psychology

\
* creator of dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), a type of psychotherapy that combines cognitive restructuring with acceptance, mindfulness, and shaping

Asch

Unit: Social Psychology

\
conformity line experiment

Festinger

Unit: Social Psychology

\
research concerned how **people resolve conflict** (group dynamics), ambiguity (social comparison), and inconsistency (cognitive dissonance)