living/working/famine

russia

what did most people live in during Alexander II and III’s time?

• Izba (a single-room wooden hut) heated by an oven.

• Was overcrowded

• Poor quality

• But it was most cheap to construct and once erected, peasants had control over it.

how much of the Russian population lived in towns and cities by the end of the 19th century?

15%

what happened to the population of Riga and Kiev by 1914?

Both cities’ population doubled due to industrialisation and rural migration.

what did rapid increase of population in cities like Kiev and Rika cause?

• Led to an increase in public health problems too.

• Housing was erected and was cheaply made— poor quality with inadequate drainage, water supplies, and sanitation. 

• Demand outweighs supply and so there was overcrowding and disease.

describe housing at the start of wwi?

Housing was often substandard, hastily constructed with inadequate facilities, leading to severe overcrowding, poor sanitation, and public health crises.

• At the start of WWI: in 1914: there were over 1000 towns containing about 2 million buildings.

• Over half of the housing was constructed from wood and prone to fire.

how many towns had access to electricity?

In 1914, only 74 towns had access to electricity, highlighting the underdeveloped infrastructure.

how many towns had access to gas?

Only 35 towns had access to gas

how many towns had piped water and a sewage system?

In 1914, around 200 had piped water and 38 a sewage system., showcasing the inadequate sanitation facilities available.

deaths caused from cholera in St Petersburg in 1910?

10,000 deaths due to cholera

example of bad housing during the First World War?

Many families lived in overcrowded tenements, lacking proper sanitation and ventilation, leading to poor health outcomes.

workers had to share bunk beds, some workers slept in the workshop– factory workers

bread rations by September 1917 in Moscow and Petrograd?

By september, bread rations in Moscow and Petrograd were 0.5 pounds per person per day → malnutrition and unrest

food supply carloads in St Petersburg in January 1917?

Food supply to cities was disrupted wherein only 21 carloads of grain and flour were received by Petrograd in January 1917 whereas 120 were needed. → food shortages, long queues and discontent

how was housing during Stalin’s time?

Housing during Stalin's time was often inadequate and overcrowded, with many families living in communal apartments that lacked privacy and basic amenities.

stats for housing during Stalin’s time

• Overcrowding was the norm

• Moscow, mid-1930s: 25% of the population was living in one room shared between 2+ households.

• 25% lived in communal dorms.

• 5% lived in a bathroom, kitchen, corridor or hallway

• Living space had fallen from 8.5% m² in 1905 to 5.8 m² by 1935.

• Most social projects were put on hold to focus on the 5YP.

living space in 1905 and 1935

8.5 m² per person in 1905;

5.8 m² per person in 1935.

how many became homeless during the Second World War?

Resulted in over 25 million becoming homeless.

describe rural housing during Stalin’s time?

Construction of special housing blocks located near the collective farms

• These were inadequate and faced poor living conditions. Many lacked basic amenities such as running water and electricity — harsh reality of Stalin’s agricultural policies

Kulaks were forced from their property into damn barracks or in tent accommodations.

Urban housing under Khrushchev

built housing which was low-cost apartment designed to address housing shortages. These buildings often had small living spaces and faced issues with quality and infrastructure.

housing stock during Khrushchev (date + number)

1955–64: housing stock doubled

rural housing under Khrushchev?

• Constructed self-contained ‘agro-towns’

• Were built quickly and cheaply → poor standard

• Overcrowded → health problems

land and redemption payments under Alexander II

They had 20% less land and redemption payments had an interest of 6% over 49 years.

when was a factory inspectorate introduced? effectiveness?

1882: factory inspectorate introduced

Largely ineffective as there were too few and they had limited powers of enforcement

Alexander iii law on employment of children?

1882: employment of children under 12 banned

working day hours under Alexander iii

In 1892, the working day for women and children was limited to 11 hours.

working day hours under Nicholas (1896 and 1914)

1896: 11-hour working day

1914: 9–10 hour working day (statutory holidays)

when was the workers’ insurance system introduced?

1903: workers’ insurance system introduced

stolypin reform on peasant farming?

1908:(Stolypin’s reform) — stop restrictions of the Mir– peasants could decide what to farm and could make surplus (kulak class beginning to form)

how much land did nobility own by 1905?

• 1905: land owned by nobility = down by 40%

• owned 200 million acres in mid-1870s to 140mil acres in 1905

difference in farming under the tsars compared to the communists

Before the Bolshevik takeover, peasants could control the pace at which they worked and how much they produced. Under the communists, how much was produced, the methods, the type of produce, everything was controlled by government policy. Collectivisation meant that the farmers had to work together to meet targets.

working day under the PG

1917: 8-hour working day (a result of a decree by the PG)

wages under the PG

Wages fell to about 50% of 1913 levels

When was Rabkrin introduced and what did they do?

1920: Rabkrin introduced (the Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspectorate)— was more of a talking shop than one enforcing industrial law.

hours and pay under Lenin

working hours in 1932 and 1939 and 1940

• 1932: 10-12 hour working day to meet demands of the 5YP

• 1939: 7-hour working day as a reward for worker efforts in the 5YP

• 1940: 8-hour working day due to war + no more holidays!

• for rapid industrialisation and wartime production

what happened to wages during the first 5YP?

1928–32 (first 5YP): wages fell by 50% despite production targets

why was Stalin’s piece rate payment an incentive

Stalin's piece rate payment incentivized workers by allowing them to earn more based on output, thus motivating increased productivity to meet high production quotas.

wages in 1954 compared to early 1920s?

Wages in 1954 were significantly higher than in the early 1920s, reflecting industrial recovery and improved living standards post-World War II.

when was a minimum wage introduced?

1956

working day hours in 1958 and why

1958 was set at 7 hours, primarily to increase worker productivity and improve overall quality of life. as Khrushchev wanted to move away from oppressive Stalinist years

average household income increase in 1960—65

1960–65: Average household income grew by 3% annually

who was placed in charge of dealing with famines under Alexander II?

1864: placed Zemstvo in charge of drawing up emergency measures to deal with famines.

famine during Alexander iii’s reign

1891 famine

how did the 1891 famine happen

Despite bad weather in 1890 + growing population, grain exporting was prioritised.

Vyshnergradsky raised taxes on consumer goods → people had to pay more – so they sold any surplus of grain to make money to pay the inflated prices for everyday goods

how many died during the 1891 famine?

It's estimated that about 375,000 to 500,000 people died due to starvation and related diseases (cholera and typhus)

how did Alexander iii respond to the 1891 famine?

Alexander’s actions

• Banned exports of grain (too late)

• Set up a Special Committee of Famine Relief

• Acted too late so gave an incentive to emerging revolutionary groups.

queue at the height of inflation (wwi)?

1917: 8-hour bred queue as height of inflation

(1917) grain supplies to urban areas compared to pre-war levels?

By 1917, urban areas received less than half the grain supplies compared to pre-war levels (some rural provinces hoarded grain)

what happened during the 1918 Food Crisis?

Peasants hoarded grain, and valuable agricultural land had been lost to Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 1918 → so the Bolsheviks introduced grain requisitioning.

how did the Bolsheviks implement grain requisitioning in 1918?

• Peasants resorted to violence to retort, refused to sign up for collectives and resisted making surplus.

• By 1920: Cheka and the Red Army seized all food supply, not just surpluses. These were then redistributed to towns and cities. 

• More violent action followed.

• Kulaks were, of course, blamed for the shortage and were subsequently persecuted.

why did the 1921 famine happen?

The 1921 famine occurred due to a combination of drought, the effects of the Civil War, and the brutal grain requisitioning policies imposed by the Bolsheviks, leading to severe food shortages across Russia.

Ukrainian food production during the famine of 1921?

Ukrainian food production fell by 20% during this time

how many died in the 1921 famine?

Approximately 5 million people

why was Lenin blamed for the 1921 famine and the deaths?

Lenin was blamed for the famine because he was slow to respond as he was reluctant to accept aid from the American Relief Administration + their harsh grain requisitioning policies.

when was stability in the countryside restored after the 1921 famine?

by the mid-1920s

why did food shortages reappear in 1928?

• Food shortages reappeared in 1928; due to weather + peasants not working land as much

• ^kulaks were blamed for hoarding grain

why did the famine of 1932—4 occur?

The famine of 1932-1934 occurred due to Stalin's forced collectivisation policies, which disrupted agricultural production, poor weather conditions, and the state's excessive grain requisitioning, leading to widespread starvation.

deaths caused by 1932 famine?

5—7 million

deaths caused by 1932 famine + the oppression during it

5 million deaths, additionally,

• Death penalty for stealing grain

• Peasants who ate their own seed corn were shot

• Discussion of grain crisis banned

• Restriction on food scavengers

• Peasant reaction: slaughtered their animals.

  resulting in approximately 8 million deaths.

after the 1932 famine, when did food production somewhat increase?

• By 1935: food production increased slowly.

• But…total food output was lower than pre-wwi 

• By the late 1930s, meat and fish consumption had fallen by 80%

compare meat consumption during Stalin and Khrushchev?

By the late 1930s, meat and fish consumption had fallen by 80%

Meat consumption rose by 55% – diet improved

what happened to collectivisation during the Second World War?

Collectivisation was largely interrupted due to the war effort, leading to a temporary reversion to smaller scale farming and private plots to ensure food supply. This was short-lived

how many Ukrainians died in the 1932 famine?

An estimated 5 million Ukrainians died due to starvation and famine.

what did the reintroduction of collectivisation post-war lead to?

• Famine of 1947; a million dead

• 1945 harvest was less than 60% pre-war harvest

why did food still have to imported despite Virgin Land Scheme and improvements  to the state pricing mechanism for produce?

The Virgin Land Scheme and state pricing improvements did not fully address the agricultural challenges, leading to continued food shortages and the need for imports to meet demand. So demand always exceeded supply.