Josiah Wedgwood

The Role of Queen Charlotte

The Role of Queen Charlotte

- Wedgwood presented her with a tea-set in 1762 - 'Shrewd Marketing Move'

- brought his work to the attention of those who defined fashion

- His generosity was repaid in 1765 when Charlotte placed an order for an 'entire service' + she became a patron of his company = boost of popularity he needed amongst the socially elite
- 'Creamware' was rebranded as 'Queensware' in 1766
- Famous Patrons = Duchess of Argyle + Empress Catherine II of Russia also placed orders with Wedgwood after this - Wedgwood thought the Russian order would provide a way to further promote the reputation of his pottery on a global scale

Marketing of London Showroom

- Neil McKendrick argued Wedgwood "Single handedly invented modern marketing"
- He resisted the competition on price - 1733 - held out against a falling market for ceramics to maintain his reputation of exclusivity - he believed that if he could supply the new fashion, the middle-class would follow it at a premium price
- Set up LS to display his entire range of wares so that prospective purchasers could walk in off street to browse + marvel at latest Wedgwood works
- Neo-classical architecture, vast cabinet displays + grand premsises on street-side to ensure footfall
- A place of social gathering + a day out for families
- Displayed abundance and the growing desire for modern design
- Gave him the ability to set the standards for taste + created an understanding amongst the public of what fashion should be
- Fundamental element of his success as it gained him much more interest than if he was just to operate based on specific orders

Decoration

- 1770 - Wedgwood set up a workshop with his new partner = Thomas Bentley - to provide hand decoration for his pottery
- Bentley managed the workshop
- Located in London - convenient for his elite clientele
- Employed many talented painters to produce famous landscapes like John Flaxman
- Sadler + Green in Liverpool were his printers until 1784 - there was an irritation in their workmanship = arrangement was not always satisfactory + correspondence between them was poor = Wedgwood transferred his printing to the 'Etruria Works'

Partnership with Bentley

- Nov 1768 - partnership formed with Bentley - a previous friend of Wedgwood's
- Shared views on religion, politics and interest in science
- Bentley was mostly involved in Wedgwood's marketing arm - where he oversaw the placing of orders + the delivery of finished goods
- Managed Wedgwood's London decoration workshop where he employed famous artists = John Flaxman - to decorate ornamental vases

Etruria 1767-1769

- Bought estate in 1767 for £3,000 + built a large house for himself = Etruria hall + a new factory = The Etruria Works + a workers village = all amounting to £10,000
- In 1769 the new complex officially opened with much fanfare
- One of the worlds first modern factories
- Wedgwood took the name from the Etruscan people from Italy - brought to the attention of the 18th century public after the discovery of their pottery artefacts = He wanted to reproduce similar sophisticated products to work of the ancients
- Industrialising Pottery Manufacturing =
- Wedgewood wanted to eliminate the 'careless methods' that were typical of previous potters - 'Division of Labour' = process of production where the manufacturing of a product is broken down into a series of smaller jobs carried out by a number of different people, instead of one craftsperson producing a single item - different groups of workers became specialised in their field + became more knowledgable of their skill + it helped avoid damage to the productivity of the business
- Production was split into that of 'Useful-ware' (creamware) or 'Ornamental-ware' (vases + plaques) - essentially determined the layout of the factory
- Strict Discipline = 'Clocking in' system - used to discourage employees from turning up whenever they liked and kept a routine + Bells - constant reminder of the organisation and structure of the working day = created a sense of order and allowed output to improve - Traditions like 'Saint Monday' were heavily discouraged by Wedgwood + fines and threats of dismissal were used as consequences for involvement in such things = put an end to its irregularities
- Technology + Science = Kilns - He wanted to adopt a more scientific approach so temperatures were now monitored + checked more regularly = He was later made a fellow of the royal society

Sarah Wedgwood

- Wedgwood married his third cousin Sarah in 1764
- They shared the same interests - strong views on theology, society and slavery
- Their marriage was not a matter of money but a match of love
- A woman who noted tastes in terms of design and style - reflected through the decoration of Wedgwood's home
- Significant role in helping Josiah with his accounts due to her education + took profound interests in much of Josiah's work - he described her as his 'Chief-helpmate' within his period of experiments to find the 'perfect white' of creamware = they even developed their own secret code to protect their recipies for commercial success
- Her father - Richard Wedgwood - proved significant opposition to the pairs success - he was not convinced that Josiah could keep up with his daughters expectations of style and sophistication
- After negotiation an agreement was reached = Josiah must give assurances over his incomes, Sarah stood to inherit her fathers estate + a £4,000 dowry was placed under Josiah's control - Richard also funnelled funds into the business - implying the couples important financial implications for the development of the Wedgwood's pottery

Experimental Work

- Green glaze = New alternative to classic salt glaze - Wedgwood recognised the lack of variation and diversity this had + wanted to find new novel forms of decoration
= 1759 - his breakthrough in the development of a green glaze from various ingridients (as listed in his notebook)
= This discovery was then followed by a yellow glaze in 1760 which was listed in his notebook as experiment 100 - the combo of these 2 new innovative glazes were used in most of his early coloured pottery pieces (EG. Pineapple Teapot - green leaves + yellow dome)
- These products proved popular instantly + sold well amongst the middle and upper classes - such developments established Wedgwood's reputation of style and innovation
- Creamware = from 1720s experiments had been carried out amongst potters for this - early attempts produced mixed results with wide variations in colour - Wedgwood began his experiments in 1755 in the search for a consistent and even colour
- Sold reasonably well at first, but batches could vary in colour from a light straw to a deep saffron = Wedgwood knew that the key to long term commercial success was consistency - purchasers would become dissatisfied if they needed to replace an item + it didn't match the other pieces of the set - Conducted around 400 experiments combining different quantities of ingredients and temperatures
= Finally in 1761 he produced an even translucent glaze + started producing 'creamware' at his Ivy House Pottery - it sold well + Wedgwood demonstrated his confidence in it in 1762 when he presented a tea set to Queen Charlotte = was soon the most popular product + although there were over 100 potteries at this time producing 'Creamware,' Wedgwood defined the market and set the standard

Partnership with John Whieldon

- In 1754 Wedgwood entered a 5 year partnership with John Whieldon at the Fenton Low Works in Staffordshire
- His work with Whieldon was concerned with the improvement of glazes, colours and shapes
- In 1759 Wedgwood ended the partnership with Whieldon - because his work was losing ground to competitors and it was clear that the business needed to industrialise and innovate to improve its consistency + he wanted to create a newer and more exclusive market for pottery
- He started his own business in Burslem - took a lease on the Ivy House Works + began to develop his own ceramics, focusing on colour and design + he marked his own goods by having his name pressed into the clay

Stoke-on-Trent : The Potteries

- In the 18th Century the pottery industry in Stoke-on-Trent was to improve significantly =
- Growth in the canal network, connecting the area to growing cities like Manchester and Liverpool
- Ample supplies of both Red Clay (For making pottery) and Fire Clay (For making Firebricks)
- Area that was rich with coal
- Located close to navigable rivers needed for transport
- Ready market for clay pots from the nearby dairy industry
-Arrival of entrepreneurs like Wedgwood who saw potential of the area and took advantage of it

Early Life

- Smallpox left Wedgwood with a permanentley weakened right knee + work as a potter became difficult for him, so during the period that he was unable to work he researched the craft of pottery + its industry
- Nevertheless, he completed his apprenticeship at the family business (ran by his brother as his father died in 1739) + continued to work for his brother until 1752 when he formed a partnership with John Harrison = lasted 2 years, then he moved on to work with Thomas Whieldon

Jasperware

- First appeared around 1776 + went on to become Wedgwood's best known line
- First colour was blue = an innovation that required experiments with over 300 samples - Wedgwood went on to produce a range of colours
- Impeccable design captured the taste for the neo-classical
- A porcelain pot with bodies formed from coloured clay added to the outer surface = used to create vases, watch cases, plaques and brooches
- Designers such as John Flaxman developed such shapes based on the Greek and Roman world
-Around this time Wedgwood began to introduce women and children into his workforce - dealing with the application of delicate decoration

Black Basalt

- 1767 - known as the first true ornamental ware
- First trials began in July 1766 + less than 12 months later 'Black Basalt' wares were on the market
- Mainly used in the production of vases, often inspired by ancient Greek and Italian designs

Wedgwood's successful market of 'Useful-ware'

-Proved to be highly profitable = in 1769 the company sold £7,000 worth of mainly creamware
- Was only half of his success = in the 1760s Wedgwood had made a name for himself producing more complex items like green + yellow glazed tea sets
- It was the 1770s + 80s that Wedgwood was to truly define his reputation as an innovator, designer and promoter of the classical style, as he went on to develop a range of ornamental wares

Growing market for Porcelain

- Porcelain - A blue + white pottery with a hard surface and a translucent finish that was made in China for centuries
- Three types of Porcelain = Hard paste, Soft paste and Bone China
- By 1730, the British East India company was importing over 517,000 pieces a year
- Became very popular in Europe during the 19th century = it represented ones wealth and taste, was increasingly fashionable amongst the aristocracy due to the whiteness and purity of its glaze + sense of exoticism and aspirational families sought to emulate those of higher society through it
- Expensive to import into Britain = high financial outlays in the transportation of it + high potential for damage of products (goods were fragile + being shipped thousands of miles significantly raised the possibility of breakage)
- William Cookworthy 1745 - first person to successfully produce porcelain in Britain
- Wedgwood turned down the patent for Soft-paste Porcelain - he did not wish to produce an inferior product to the original that was being imported from China
- Wedgwood + other pottery manufacturers had difficulty in producing Porcelain before 1775 because of the restriction on the use of Kaolin from Cornwall (Richard Champion of Bristol had the monopoly for it)

The Coming of Canals

- Canals came into being because the industrial revolution demanded a cheap + reliable way of transporting goods in large quantities
- First canal ever built - 3rd Duke of Bridgewater in 1761 = to carry coal from his mines at Worsley to near Manchester
- After the Bridgewater canal, the early canals were built by groups of private individuals

Problems with existing transport in North-Staffordshire

- Few turnpike roads (toll roads) in the area and those that existed didn't always extend to the Potteries
-Coastal shipping was used to bring flint + clays from other parts of the country to supply the growing pottery industry = drawbacks = still required packhorses on land to transport goods from the factory gate to the nearest port
- Extensive use of the river network - the Trent had been made navigable through Stoke-on-Trent + provided the means of transport for raw materials eg. Coal = drawbacks = drought or heavy rain could make them impassible + carriage on some inland waterways were monopolised by certain rested interests (individuals with particular interests in a certain subject due to the positive potential of its outcome) = high costs
- Cost of Transporting goods + the difficulty of carrying them to market led to Wedgwood's involvement in promoting a new canal system = he saw an opportunity to bring bulky cargoes of clay to his factory doors + to transport his finished fragile goods to markets further afield like Manchester + Birmingham safely

Trent Mersey Canal - Support of the Duke of Bridgewater

- Wedgwood approached Bridgewater with a plan on linking the potteries to the Mersey - based on the evident success of his canal enterprise = his support would be crucial as aristocracy regularly participated in the prep of private bills + was key in gaining the approval for construction purposes
- 1761 - Bridgewater + his engineer oversaw the construction of what is known as the country's first canal = he was interested in commerce + financially successful
- Industrialists lacked a direct representation in parliament + so were forced to lobby in support of their interests - Wedgwood was one of the most active lobbyists for manufacturers across the midlands
- Patronage was seen as the key currency for commercial advancement in society
- Bridgewater's brother ended up being in the position to support the bill in parliament + it was passed that same year = estimated it would cost around £77,939 + Bridgewater became the leading advocate of the project in parliament

Trent Mersey Canal - Importance + Benefits

- Lack of success in promoting turnpike roads = needed a new solution
- Needed to keep up with the increasing export trade of Staffordshire pottery
- Needed a more cost effective way of transporting his finished products = Wedgwood's main concern was shipping his expensive finished products , rather than the bulk transport of raw materials = once built, he was able to send his fragile cream-ware + jasper-ware products to markets via canal instead of by packhorse = reducing damage costs + improving effectiveness of business = proved a highly profitable venture - in 1824 £100 worth of stock was quoted at £2,200
- Proved profitable for investors gaining regular dividends + resulted in a reduction of transport costs from 10d to 1.5d per ton
- For Wedgwood + other manufacturers, it provided a means to supply them with raw materials + a safe way to export the products of the potteries
- Reduced breakages + increased the potential volume of goods that could be transported = great engineering triumph

Trent Mersey Canal - Challenges and Opposition

- Local opposition = The River Weaver Navigation company saw the project attempting to compete with its trade in the Cheshire Salts
- Waggoners, Packhorse interests + those involved in coastal trade = brought their grievances to parliament -> BUT, Bridgewater had managed to put together a formidable lobby in favour of the scheme so had little impact
- Disputes over the proposed route of the canal = great deal of tension between investors as many became worried that the Duke was going to bypass Staffordshire completely + instead link the route to the salt towns in Cheshire = Wedgwood began to put his case forward more forcefully to Lord Gower + ensured he respected that the canal must serve its original purpose
- Large expense of its construction
- Need to obtain and Act of Parliament - the help of the landed elite was needed to support the emergent industrial capitalist class in order for their projects to gain political power

Trent Mersey Canal - Driving the construction to completion

- Large responsibility for Wedgwood
- Wedgwood was elected honorary treasurer (important role in overseeing the financial + general production side of a project) + put £1,000 of his own money towards the scheme, while pledging another £10,000 as security
- The project also gained many other investments from other industrialists in the area - creating a solidarity amongst many industrialists + landed elite which illustrated the reciprocity of the growing relationship with the aristocracy = if politically the nobility were prepared to promote projects advantageous to industrialists, it was the financial backing from this class that paid for their completion
- Aristocracy + industrialists worked hand in hand = financing was largely based on popular support from the capitalist class + political promotion was done by the landed elite = there was a net gain for both parties in these agreements
- Construction began in 1766, BUT didn't complete until 1777, at a distance of 93 miles with 75 locks -> including an arm that ran past Wedgwood's Etruria works = was a very direct route to save time + money

Wedgwood's stance on slavery + social responsibility

-His religion was not that of the established Church of England = he was a follower of a non-conformist ideology + Humble background = placing him outside the the social elite who he spent most of his time cultivating as his customers for his ceramics
- Took social responsibility very seriously + believed that upper + middle class individuals had the duty to use their abundance of resources to support just causes for the betterment of society
- 1760 - a time when he faced considerable challenges developing his business, he nevertheless gave £10 to build a free school for the community + money wasn't his only contribution - he was also a political reformer + was prepared to give his time + position in support of causes he felt were important
- Most noticably, he became an active participant in the campaign for the abolition of the slave trade

Background of The Slave Trade

- Began with the Portugese + some Spanish traders taking mainly West African slaves to the American colonies they had conqured in the 15th century
-British sailors became involved in the 16th century when the treaty of utrecht (1713) gave them the right to sell slaves to the Spanish empire = made a great deal of profit to those who exchanged + sold slaves - they often ignored the fact that it was inhumane and unfair due to its monetary gains
- At least 12 million Africans were taken to the Americas as slaves between 1532 and 1832- at least 1/3 of them in British ships
- For the British slave traders it was a 3 legged journey called 'The Triangular Trade' = 1 - West African slaves were exchanged for trade goods like guns + brandy 2 - Slaves were taken via the 'middle passage' across the Atlantic for sale in the West Indies + North America (6 weeks to several months long + 2 million died during) 3 - A cargo of rum + sugar would be taken from the colonies back to England to sell once the slaves had been distributed
= Ships were tightly packed + cramped - one persons leg would be chained to another and so on.... terrible conditions = diseases such as smallpox, scurvy and measles were the main causes for death

The Abolition Movement

- At the end of the 18th century public opinion began to turn agains slave trade
- Resistance = many African rulers refused to sell, slaves mutinied on ships + rebelled + ran away from their masters
- 1787 - the committee for the abolition of the slave trade was set up - William Wilberforce represented it in parliament = campaigners boycotted sugar, wrote letters + presented petitions and some went on speaking tours showing the public chains + models of slave ships to raise awareness
- Abolished in 1807

Wedgwood's contribution to The Abolition Movement

- Creation of the slave cameo in 1787 = picturing a black man on his knees with his hands and feet shackled, gazing upwards as if to a master with the slogan 'Am i not a man and a brother?' - which was used on many pamphlets + tapestries after
- Widely distributed to the supporters of the cause - some were even sent to Benjamin Franklin to spread awareness in America = loathed by slave supporters + promoted the cause of 'Justice, humanity and freedom'
= became one of the greatest contributions to the anti-slavery cause because it was such a powerful and compelling image (designed by William Hackwood, one of Wedgwood's best potters) = adopted as the symbol for the anti-slavery society + the design was transferred onto brooches + watch cases to spread awareness further
SIGNIFICANCE TO HIS CAREER - contribution was largely to create a product that combined a slogan + an image to make the cause for abolition more eloquent than portrayed in pamphlets + widely recognised
- The words 'am i not a man or a brother?' define the moral cause for the ending of slavery within England + it's acceptance into fashionable society added to its potential to raise the profile of the issue and gain the attention of those who might be persuaded to act in parliament to end such trade

Later Life

- 1790 Wedgwood partially retired from his more strenuous duties + took longer holidays than previously
- His health began to deteriorate rapidly after this point + after a brief illness he died on January 3rd 1795 at the age of 64
- His grave is in the churchyard at Stoke + there is a monument by Flaxman outside the church with the inscription = 'He converted a rude and inconsiderable manufactory into an elegant art and an important part of national commerce'