Physiological Psychology (Finals)

Emotion

A mental and physiological feeling state that directs attention and guides behavior; typically adaptive but can also be destructive.

Fundamental (Basic) Emotions

Anger, disgust, happiness, surprise, sadness, etc.

Positive Human Emotion

Leads to feeling good about oneself; results in emotional happiness and satisfaction.

Negative Human Emotion

Lack of motivation or desire to act; includes exhaustion, panic, jealousy, depression, envy, guilt, etc.

Cannon-Bard Theory

Emotion and physiological arousal occur simultaneously and independently. Proposed by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard.

James-Lange Theory

Emotion results from physiological arousal; the body reacts first, then the emotion is experienced. Supported by studies on spinal injury and amygdala activation.

Two-Factor Theory (Schachter-Singer Theory)

Emotion is the result of physiological arousal plus cognitive interpretation. Formula: Emotion = arousal + cognition. Developed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer.

Nonverbal Communication

The expression of emotion without words; includes tone of voice, facial expressions, posture, gait, and touch.

Emotion as Fiction (Behaviorist View)

Argues that emotions are mental constructs with little scientific value; proposed by B.F. Skinner. Emotions are seen as fictional causes of behavior, not direct drivers.

Panksepp’s Perspective

This view states that emotions have a neural basis and are subjectively experienced; emotions should be scientifically studied and not dismissed as fiction.

Darwin’s View on Emotion

This view states that emotions are objectively measurable and play a significant role in behavior and adaptation.

Economics and Politics of Emotion

Emotion regulates the allocation of psychological resources in response to threats or promises. High emotion can redirect attention and impair cognition.

Command-Economy Model

When emotions are high, all mental resources are focused on the emotional stimulus, reducing other cognitive functions.

Mixed Economy of the Mind

Describes the flexible interaction between emotion and cognition during normal states.

Free-Market Mind (Criticized View)

A disconnected model where emotion and cognition operate independently; considered less adaptive.

Affective Disorders and Emotion

Involve emotional floods that dominate mental systems and result in negative psychological states.

Involuntary Emotions

Emotions occur automatically due to evolutionary adaptations; they help humans respond quickly to biologically significant stimuli.

Evolutionary Origins of Emotions

Emotions evolved as automatic survival responses (e.g., fear triggering fight-or-flight).

Subconscious Activation

Emotions are influenced by past experiences, beliefs, and learned associations, often activated before conscious awareness.

Communication Function of Emotion

Emotions signal internal states to ourselves and others through facial expressions, tone, and posture.

Emotional Regulation

Techniques like cognitive reappraisal and mindfulness that help modulate but not completely control emotional responses.

Motivation

A driving force that initiates and directs behavior; can be biological, social, or achievement-based.

Drives

Internal states that push individuals to fulfill basic needs like food, water, and sex.

Defensive Motivation

Motivation to avoid harmful or noxious stimuli.

Approach Motivation

Motivation to seek out rewarding stimuli.

Ethnopharmacology

Study of drug effects on natural defensive behavior in animals.

Fear System

Responds to immediate threats (Blanchard & Blanchard).

Anxiety System

Anticipates responses to potential threats.

Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS)

Controls immediate reactions to threats (e.g., fight, flee, freeze).

Behavioral Approach System (BAS)

Drives pursuit of rewards; associated with positive emotion.

Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)

Detects threats and generates anxiety; inhibits behavior to avoid danger.

Lateral Hypothalamus

Biological determinant to start eating

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

Biological determinant to stop eating

Homeostasis

Balance in hunger and satiety driven by internal cues and systems.

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

Energy expended at rest; varies per person.

Environmental Influence

Cultural norms and social factors affect eating habits.

Sexual Drive

Motivated by pleasure (e.g., orgasm); essential for reproduction and tied to multiple behaviors like courtship and parenting.

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis (Dollard et al., 1939)

Aggression results from frustration due to blocked goals or needs.

Aggressive Instincts (Konrad Lorenz, 1966)

Aggression is an innate survival mechanism; humans may lack natural inhibitions.

Types of Aggression in Animals

Defensive, offensive, and predatory aggression.

Neural Mechanisms

Midbrain and hypothalamus organize aggression; amygdala modulates aggression based on social experiences.

Testosterone

Increases aggression (especially in males).

Estrogen & Progesterone

Fluctuate aggression in females (e.g., high aggression before menstruation).

Maternal Aggression

Protective behavior towards offspring in humans and animals.

Social Learning (Bandura et al., 1963)

Children imitate aggressive behaviors they observe.

Environmental Stress (Calhoun, 1962)

Overcrowded conditions increase aggression in animals (e.g., rats).

Sex-typed toy preference

Children begin preferring toys stereotypically associated with their sex between 12–18 months, even before associating them with gendered faces or voices.

Biological influence on toy preference

Studies on monkeys show male monkeys prefer wheeled toys while females prefer dolls and plush animals, suggesting biological roots to toy preferences.

Genetic sex determination

Determined at conception; mothers always provide an X chromosome, while the father's sperm provides either an X (female) or Y (male).

Fetus and sex differentiation

 All fetuses start undifferentiated; without male hormones, all would develop with outwardly female traits.

Intersex

A rare condition where aspects of both male and female development occur in one fetus.

Primordial gonads

Undifferentiated gonads in embryos that can develop into testes or ovaries depending on genetic signals.

Sex-determining region of the Y chromosome or SRY gene

A gene on the Y chromosome that triggers development of testes by producing the testis-determining factor.

Testis-determining factor

 Protein encoded by the SRY gene that initiates development of testes from primordial gonads.

Wolffian system

Male internal duct system that develops into seminal vesicles, vas deferens, and prostate under influence of testosterone.

Müllerian system

Female internal duct system that develops into the uterus, upper vagina, and fallopian tubes if no male hormones are present.

Anti-Müllerian hormone

Hormone secreted by testes that causes degeneration of Müllerian system in male fetuses.

Testosterone

Male hormone that promotes development of the Wolffian system and male characteristics.

 External genitalia development

Males develop penis and scrotum under influence of 5-alpha-dihydrotestosterone; females develop labia, clitoris, and outer vagina naturally without hormone stimulation.

5-alpha-dihydrotestosterone

A potent androgen formed from testosterone; crucial for the development of male external genitalia.

Puberty

Period of further sexual development where genitals mature and secondary sex characteristics (e.g., facial hair, breast development) appear.

Secondary sex characteristics

Features like facial hair or breast development that emerge at puberty but are not directly related to reproduction.

Decreasing age of puberty

Average puberty age has dropped from 16 to 12, possibly due to obesity and exposure to external hormones.

External estrogen exposure

Estradiol from meat, dairy, plastics, and cosmetics may contribute to early puberty and is concerning for children.

Phthalates

Chemicals in plastics and cosmetics that can leach into air/fluids and disrupt hormone development, advancing puberty.

Sex hormones

Steroid hormones synthesized from cholesterol in the gonads (and to a lesser extent in adrenal glands) that organize and activate sexual behavior and brain circuits.

Organizational role

Influence during prenatal and early postnatal development that structures the brain for future sexual behavior.

Activating role

Trigger sexual behavior at puberty via hormonal activation of brain circuits.

Androgens

Male sex hormones (e.g., testosterone); also present in females in smaller amounts.

Estrogens

Female sex hormones; also produced in males in lesser amounts.

GnRH (Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone)

Hormone released by the hypothalamus that controls the release of sex hormones from the gonads.

Melatonin

A neurohormone from the pineal gland that inhibits GnRH release; light reduces melatonin, thereby increasing GnRH.

Estrus

Period of sexual receptivity in non-human females tied to ovulation.

Menstrual cycle

Occurs in humans and some primates; not tightly linked to sexual receptivity.

Testosterone in women

Strongly influences sexual interest and satisfaction.

Adrenal glands

Provide about half of a woman’s testosterone; adrenal disease can affect sexual behavior.

Estrogen replacement therapy (ERT)

Helps with memory and verbal fluency but carries health risks.

High testosterone

Improves spatial skills (e.g., mental rotation).

High estrogen

Improves verbal fluency and manual dexterity.

Estrogens and memory

Protective effects on verbal memory, especially postmenopause.

MPA (Depo-Provera)

Used for chemical castration; lowers testosterone, reducing sexual activity.

Testosterone supplements

Improve spatial skills and verbal fluency in older men.

Sexually dimorphic

Traits with structural differences between sexes.

Masculinization of the brain

Occurs through prenatal androgen exposure, influencing sex-typical brain features.

Sexual orientation

Stable pattern of attraction to a specific sex; distinct from sexual behavior.

SDN-POA (Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus of the Preoptic Area)

Larger in male rats; influenced by prenatal testosterone.

CAH (Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia)

Prenatal androgen exposure that may increase same-sex attraction in women.

Otoacoustic emissions

Sounds produced by the inner ear; stronger in females; intermediate in lesbian/bisexual women.

2D:4D ratio

Ratio of index to ring finger; more “masculine” ratios (shorter index finger) linked to prenatal androgen exposure in lesbians.

Twin studies

Higher concordance of homosexuality in identical (50%) than fraternal (20–25%) male twins.

X chromosome inactivation

More extreme skewing in mothers of homosexual sons; possible epigenetic influence.