APUSH Period 6 (1865-1900)

Social Darwinism

A belief that Charles Darwin’s theory of the evolution of species also applied to social and economic institutions and practices. The “fittest” enterprises or individuals prevailed, while those that were defective naturally faded away. Society thus progressed most surely when competition was unrestricted by government.

Bessemer Process

A revolutionary steel-making process that enabled the mass production of steel, significantly reducing costs and fueling industrial growth in the late 19th century.

Consequences of Industrial Revolution

Rapid industrialization led to urbanization, increased production, harsh labor conditions, economic disparity, and the rise of powerful monopolies.

Taylor’s System (Scientific Management)

A method developed by Frederick Taylor to increase industrial efficiency by standardizing tasks and improving worker productivity through time and motion studies.

Public Transportation Developments

The growth of streetcars, subways, and railroads transformed cities by facilitating commuting and the expansion of urban areas.

Federal Governments stance on big business

The government often supported big businesses through policies that favored industrial growth, such as high tariffs, but began regulating monopolies with laws like the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890.

Working Man

The status of the working man was recognized when the first Labor Day was celebrated on Tuesday, September 5, 1882, in New York City. The paid summer vacation became an expectation for many middle-class workers. Although health insurance, unemployment insurance, and accident benefits did not evolve fully until the Progressive Era, millions of Americans found life easier and more pleasant than they had during the early 19th century.

Robber Barons

A term of scorn applied to wealthy capitalists of the late nineteenth century who obtained their wealth and status through exploitation of workers and questionable business practices. Wealthy and powerful industrialists, such as Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller, who were criticized for exploiting workers and employing unethical business practices to amass fortunes.

Assimilation of immigrants

Immigrants were encouraged or forced to adopt American culture, language, and customs through institutions like schools and settlement houses.

Immigrant groups and where they settled

Immigrant communities formed ethnic enclaves in urban areas, with Irish and Germans settling in the Northeast and Midwest, and Chinese immigrants in the West (especially in the California area).

Inventions and Innovations

Key developments included the telephone, electric light bulb, and mechanized farming equipment, which spurred economic growth and transformed daily life.

Where different classes/ethnic groups lived in the cities

Wealthy classes moved to suburban areas, while working-class and immigrant groups lived in crowded tenements in urban centers.

African American Reformers and Viewpoints

Leaders like Booker T. Washington advocated for vocational education and economic self-reliance, while W.E.B. Du Bois emphasized civil rights and higher education.

African American Migration

Many African Americans moved to northern cities in search of better opportunities during the early stages of the Great Migration.

Haymarket Riot (1886)

A labor protest in Chicago advocating for an eight-hour workday turned violent when a bomb was thrown at police, killing several officers and protesters. The incident led to a backlash against labor unions, particularly the Knights of Labor, and increased public fear of anarchists.

Homestead Strike (1892)

A violent conflict between steelworkers and the Carnegie Steel Company in Homestead, Pennsylvania, sparked by wage cuts. The strike ended after a battle between workers and private security agents (Pinkertons) and intervention by state militia, highlighting tensions between labor and big business.

Pullman Strike (1894)

A nationwide railroad strike triggered by wage cuts and high rents in company-owned housing at the Pullman Company. It disrupted rail traffic, led to federal intervention, and highlighted the growing influence of unions like the American Railway Union.

Great Railroad Strike (1877)

The first major nationwide labor strike, sparked by wage cuts during an economic depression. The strike spread across multiple states, paralyzing rail traffic and leading to violent clashes between workers and militia, resulting in over 100 deaths and significant property damage. 2/3 of the railroads were shut down during the strike and troops were eventually sent by Rutherford B. Hayes to put an end to it.

Knights of Labor

One of the first major labor unions, aimed to unite all workers to fight for better conditions and an eight-hour workday. Welcomed African Americans, women, and immigrants, unlike the NLU. Notorious for striking (interrupted business and caused many problems for business owners but also consumers)

AFL (American Federation of Labor)

A union, formed in 1886, that organized skilled workers along craft lines. It focused on workplace issues rather than political or social reform. Specifically, it focused on skilled workers, emphasizing higher wages, shorter hours, and better working conditions through collective bargaining.

Political Machines

Organizations like Tammany Hall that controlled urban politics, often helping immigrants in exchange for votes while engaging in corruption. Could not be easily controlled by the government and created a sense of fear and hopelessness amongst Americans.

Differences between experiences of African Americans and poor immigrants

African Americans faced systemic racial discrimination and segregation, while poor immigrants often experienced exploitation but could gradually assimilate into mainstream society, especially from generation to generation.

Role of Women in the Industrial City

Women entered the workforce in factories, as domestic workers, and in clerical roles, but faced low wages and limited opportunities for advancement.

Social Gospel

A religious movement advocating for social justice and addressing issues like poverty and inequality as part of Christian ethics.

Gospel of Wealth

A philosophy promoted by Andrew Carnegie that urged the wealthy to use their fortunes for the greater good, particularly through philanthropy. Despite Darwin’s theory of the survival of the fittest (or richest), the rich had a moral obligation to donate their wealth for the betterment of society (as seen through donations to libraries, schools, the arts, etc.)

“the man who dies rich dies disgraced”

John D. Rockefeller

He revolutionized the oil industry and became one of the richest men in history, symbolizing the power of monopolies during the Gilded Age. He used horizontal and vertical integration to establish Standard Oil as a near-monopoly.
Standard Oil controlled about 90% of U.S. oil refining and distribution, driving efficiency and lowering consumer prices. Rockefeller also became a major philanthropist, founding institutions like the University of Chicago and funding medical research.
His aggressive business tactics, including predatory pricing and collusion with railroads, were widely criticized as anti-competitive and led to the eventual breakup of Standard Oil under antitrust laws.

Andrew Carnegie

Was an influential steel manufacturer who played a pivotal role in building the modern industrial economy of the United States. He pioneered the use of the Bessemer Process and vertical integration to dominate the steel industry.
He founded Carnegie Steel Company, which became the largest steel producer in the world, and later sold it to J.P. Morgan to form U.S. Steel. He became a leading philanthropist, funding libraries, universities, and the arts, and authored the "Gospel of Wealth" promoting responsible use of wealth for societal benefit.
Despite his philanthropy, Carnegie was criticized for exploiting workers with low wages, long hours, and poor working conditions, as seen in the violent suppression of the Homestead Strike.

J.P. Morgan

He was a powerful banker and financier who helped reorganize and consolidate industries, playing a key role in stabilizing the U.S. economy during financial crises. He symbolized the influence of Wall Street in the Gilded Age.
He orchestrated the creation of U.S. Steel, the first billion-dollar corporation, and was instrumental in rescuing the U.S. economy during the Panic of 1907 by organizing a coalition of financiers to prevent a banking collapse.
Critics accused Morgan of consolidating too much economic power, creating monopolistic trusts, and prioritizing profits over public interests. His dominance over finance fueled distrust of bankers and contributed to calls for financial regulation, leading to the creation of the Federal Reserve.

Timeline of Industrialization/Urbanization

1859 First oil well is drilled in Pennsylvania.

1868 Carnegie Steel Company is formed.

1876 Alexander Graham Bell invents telephone.

1877 Great railroad strike throws nation into political upheaval.

1879 Thomas Edison invents electric light bulb.

1886 Anarchists clash with police in Chicago’s Haymarket bombing. Craft unions found American Federation of Labor (AFL).

1887 Interstate Commerce Act regulates railroads.

1888 Edward Bellamy publishes utopian Looking Backward.

1890 Sherman Antitrust Act outlaws monopolies.

1894 Eugene V. Debs leads American Railway Union in Pullman strike. Henry Demarest Lloyd condemns laissez-faire in Wealth against Commonwealth.

1901 J. P. Morgan forms U.S. Steel, “world’s first billion-dollar corporation.”

laissez-faire

A French term—literally, “to let alone”—used in economic contexts to signify the absence of governmental interference in or regulation of economic matters.

Sherman Antitrust Act

A federal law, passed in 1890, that outlawed monopolistic organizations that functioned to restrain trade. Prohibited activities that restrict interstate commerce and competition in the marketplace and outlawed any contract, conspiracy, or combination of business interests in restraint of foreign or interstate trade. Not very effective because it was only judged by the size of the company, not what they were actually doing/producing. Weakened unions.

socialism

Government ownership and supervision of major economic enterprises; or the political ideology that embraces such policies. An economic system in which major industries are owned by workers/the community as a whole rather than by private businesses.

trust

An arrangement by which a corporation is legally managed by one set of persons (the trustees) while the benefits of ownership are retained by another set of persons (the beneficiaries).

Timeline of American Society in the Industrial Age

1858 English launch transatlantic liner Great Eastern.

1870 Metropolitan Museum of Art and American Museum of Natural History open in New York City.

1876 Eight teams form National Baseball League.

1880 American branch of Salvation Army is founded.

1882 Exclusion Act bans Chinese immigrants.

1885 Foran Act outlaws importing contract skilled labor.

1887 Nativists found American Protective Association.

1889 Jane Addams founds Hull House.

1890 Jacob Riis publishes How the Other Half Lives.

1896 Charles M. Sheldon asks “What would Jesus do?” in best-selling In His Steps.

settlement houses

Community centers, founded by reformers such as Jane Addams and Lillian Wald beginning in the 1880s, that were located in poor urban districts of major cities; the centers sought to Americanize immigrant families and provide them with social services and a political voice.

tenement

Four- to six-story residential apartment house, once common in New York and certain other cities, built on a tiny lot with little regard for adequate ventilation or light.

Gilded Age

Was a period of rapid industrialization, urbanization, and economic growth in the U.S., marked by vast wealth disparities and political corruption. While industrialists like Carnegie and Rockefeller amassed great fortunes, workers faced harsh conditions and low wages, sparking labor unrest. The era earned its name from its glittering prosperity masking deep societal problems.

Monopolies

Emerged as large corporations, like Standard Oil and U.S. Steel, dominated industries by eliminating competition through tactics like vertical and horizontal integration. They created efficiencies but concentrated power and wealth in the hands of a few, leading to public backlash and the enactment of antitrust laws like the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890.

Conspicuous Consumption

Refers to the lavish spending by the wealthy elite on luxury goods and services to display social status. This behavior, highlighted by figures like Thorstein Veblen, underscored the economic inequality of the Gilded Age and contrasted sharply with the struggles of the working class.

Middle Class

Expanded during industrialization, composed of professionals, managers, and clerical workers who benefited from urbanization and improved living standards. This group embraced values like education, self-discipline, and homeownership, distinguishing themselves from both the working poor and the wealthy elite.

Americanization

The process of assimilating immigrants into American culture, often through schools, settlement houses, and workplace policies. While it aimed to integrate newcomers, it also suppressed ethnic identities and enforced conformity to Anglo-American norms.

Big City “Bosses”

They, such as Boss Tweed of Tammany Hall, controlled urban politics through political machines that provided services to immigrants in exchange for votes. While they helped modernize cities and address some community needs, they were often associated with corruption, patronage, and embezzlement.

Tammany Hall: a political organization within the Democratic Party in New York city (late 1800's and early 1900's) seeking political control by corruption and bossism

Transcontinental Railroad and Associated Issues

Its completion in 1869 connected the coasts, facilitating trade, migration, and industrial expansion. However, it displaced Native Americans, exploited immigrant labor (notably Chinese workers), and led to corruption scandals like the Credit Mobilier affair.

Southern Economy and Progress

After the Civil War, the South struggled to rebuild, with sharecropping and tenant farming dominating agriculture. Efforts toward industrialization, such as textile mills, were limited, and racial segregation under Jim Crow laws hindered progress and economic equality. While the North quickly industrialized/urbanized, the south remained more agrarian with traditional ideals.

Mechanization

Revolutionized industries by introducing machines that increased productivity and reduced labor costs. However, it also displaced skilled workers, leading to lower wages, poor working conditions, and increased unemployment in some sectors.

The rise of unions

Emerged to advocate for workers' rights, including better wages, shorter hours, and safer conditions. They organized strikes and protests to challenge exploitative practices during industrialization.

Examples: Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor (AFL)

Notable Unions

• One of the first industries to unionize was the railroad industry—the American Railway Union (ARU)—Eugene Debs.

• National Labor Union, one of the first general unions to represent many working citizens, fought for an 8-hour work day and included skilled, unskilled, and agricultural workers

• Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or Wobblies)—socialist society of workers pushing for social and political reform

• United Mine Workers (UMW) – Grace (“Mother”) Jones

• Knights of Labor also organized on behalf of workers and welcomed African Americans, women, and immigrants, unlike the NLU

• American Federation of Labor—run by Samuel Gompers, fought for better wages, hours and conditions and utilized boycotts and walkouts to strengthen the position of workers

Breaking the Unions

Employers used tactics like hiring strikebreakers (scabs), blacklisting union members, and securing court injunctions to suppress union activities. The government often sided with employers, as seen in the violent suppression of strikes like the Pullman Strike of 1894.

Impact and significance of strikes

Strikes during this period, such as the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 and the Homestead Strike, highlighted the deep conflicts between labor and management. While they occasionally achieved reforms, they often ended in violence, revealing the need for systemic labor protections and fueling public debates over workers' rights and corporate power.

Chinese Exclusion Act

Congress banned entry to all Chinese except students, teachers, merchants, tourists, and government officials. In 1892 congress extended law for 10 more years. In 1902 Chinese immigration restricted indefinitely and not repealed until 1943.

Dawes Act

Designed to promote assimilation: dissolved tribes as legal entities & eliminated tribal ownership of land, promoted ideas of "rugged individualism" by granting individual heads of family 160 acres of land to farm (abandoning nomadic lifestyle) & promised Indians U.S. citizenship... in 25 years. Humanitarians disrespected native culture: "kill the indian; save the man"

Yellow Journalism

A type of sensational, biased, and often false reporting for the sake of attracting readers

W.E.B. DuBois

Felt that Black people must demand equality and integration.

Vertical Integration vs. Horizontal Integration

Vertical: Practice where a single entity controls the entire process of a product, from the raw materials to distribution. Company took over all different businesses on which it relied for its primary function (Carnegie Steel came to control not only steel mills but mines, railroads, etc)

Horizontal: A technique used by John D. Rockefeller. It is an act of joining or consolidating with ones competitors to create a monopoly. Rockefeller was excellent with using this technique to monopolize certain markets. It is responsible for the majority of his wealth.

Pendleton Act

Aimed to reform the federal government by establishing a merit-based system for hiring and promoting civil servants. This act marked a significant shift away from the patronage system, where political connections often dictated government appointments, towards a more professional and competent civil service. The law was largely a response to the widespread corruption and inefficiencies in government jobs during the Gilded Age.

Jim Crow/Plessy VS. Ferguson

1896 - The Court's "separate but equal" decision in Plessy v. Ferguson on that date upheld state-imposed Jim Crow laws. It became the legal basis for racial segregation in the United States for the next fifty years.

Booker T. Washington

Believed that Black people should keep to their community and focus on improving themselves through technical education.

Cornelius Vanderbilt

Made his fortune in steamboats then built a railway between Chicago and New York. He popularized the use of steel rails in his railroad and consolidated control using coercion and threats.

1892 Populist Party

demanded inflationary coinage, graduated income tax, government ownership of infrastructure, immigration restrictions, one term presidency, etc.

Interstate Commerce Act of 1887

A United States federal law designed to regulate the railroad industry, particularly its monopolistic practices. It required that railroad rates be "reasonable and just", but did not empower the government to fix specific rates. It also required that railroads publicize shipping rates and prohibited short-haul or long-haul fare discrimination. The Act created a federal regulatory agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), which monitored railroads to ensure that they complied with the new regulations.

Wabash Case

Ruled that the railroad was interstate commerce and therefore states did not have jurisdiction to regulate railroad. Action must then be taken by the federal government, which was uncommon at this point in American history.

Jay Gould (stock watering scheme)

Inflated claims about assets of railroad line and sold stocks for more than they were worth. Drove up rate which hurt the general public and farmers transporting products. Collusion amongst the owners/managers of the lines exploited many US citizens (esp. rural). Profit incentive led to corrupt business practices and many congress members were implicated with railroad barons.

Greenback Labor Party

3rd party focused on farm prices and cooperative agricultural markets. Associated with Farmers and Labor United.

Eugene Debs

He was a prominent labor leader and socialist who played a key role in organizing the American Railway Union (ARU) and leading the Pullman Strike of 1894, which disrupted rail traffic nationwide. His imprisonment for his role in the strike marked his shift toward socialism, and he became a vocal advocate for workers' rights and economic equality during the industrial era.

Anarchism

A political ideology that advocates for a stateless society based on voluntary cooperation and the absence of hierarchical authority, including governments, organized religion, and capitalism. They believe in self-governed communities where individuals manage their affairs collectively without coercion, often emphasizing direct action, mutual aid, and rejecting oppressive institutions. In the late 1800s was a radical political movement advocating for the abolition of government and capitalism, often associated with labor unrest and calls for direct action.