AP Psychology: Unit 1

This study set contains important vocabulary from Unit 1 and is vital for success on the AP exam.

psychology

the scientific study for the mind and behavior

Wilhem Wundt

the father of psychology; founded the first laboratory dedicated to the study of psychology (Germany)

Edward B. Titchener

proposed the idea of structuralism; student of Wilhem Wundt

William James

proposed the idea of functionalism; taught the first psychology course (Harvard University); wrote the first psychology textbook; involved more women in psychology

Stanley Hall

first American to receive a PhD in psychology; founded the first psychology laboratory in America; first president of the APA

Mary Whiton Calkins

first female president of the APA; made significant contributions to memory research

Margaret Floy Washburn

first woman to receive a degree in psychology; second female president of the APA; made significant contributions to animal research

Charles Darwin

proposed the idea of natural selection

Dorothea Dix

highlighted the unfair and inhumane treatment of people with mental illnesses; reformed insane asylums

Sigmund Freud

proposed the psychoanalytical/psychodynamic approach; studied the unconscious mind and believed that it shapes personality

Ivan Pavlov

proposed the idea of classical conditioning; conducted a famous experiment with dogs

Jean Piaget

proposed the cognitive development theory (children)

Carl Rogers

proposed the humanistic approach; made significant contributions to personality research

B.F. Skinner

proposed the behavioral approach; proposed the idea of operant conditioning

John B. Watson

proposed the behavioral approach; believed that psychology should be a scientific study of things that are observable

structuralism

the school of thought that focuses on the different structures of consciousness through individual parts

introspection

the process of looking inward to observe one’s thoughts and feelings; often associated with structuralism

functionalism

the school of thought that focuses on understanding mental and behavioral processes and how different structures work together and impact each other

Gestaltism

the school of thought that focuses on understanding one’s consciousness, perception, sensation, and learning

psychoanalysis

the school of thought that focuses on understanding mental and behavioral processes that come from the unconscious and how they cooperate or conflict with the ego, id, and superego

free association

when a word or image triggers another idea or mental picture in one’s mind; often associated with psychoanalysis

behaviorism

the school of thought that suggests that behaviors are learned through experiences and are observable; involves classical conditioning and operant conditioning

humanistic

the school of thought that suggests that all humans are naturally “good” and will reach their potential through free will; the ultimate goal is self-actualization

sociocultural

the school of thought that focuses on understanding the impact of one’s culture, nationality, religion, gender, social norms, and other cultural aspects on their mental and behavioral processes

evolutionary approach

focuses on how mental and behavioral processes of today exist due to natural selection

biological approach

focuses on how different structures of the brain and nervous system operate with the goal of understanding the link between one’s biological and psychological processes

cognitive approach

focuses on attitudes, memories, perceptions, expectations, and how one processes and remembers information

examples of basic research

biological, developmental, cognitive, educational, personality, social, positive, psychometric

examples of applied research

industrial-organizational, counseling, clinical

basic research

focuses on building psychology’s knowledge base

applied research

focuses on applying psychology to solve practical problems

operational definition

description of an experiment in terms of its procedure and necessary actions in order for it to be observed and measured; allows the experiment to be replicated by others

population

all of the individuals in a group that is being studied

sample

a selected group of individuals within a population

random sampling

each individual within a population has an equal chance of participating in the experiment

stratified sampling

the population is divided into subcategories, random samples are taken from each

sampling bias

when the sample doesn’t represent the population

representative sample

when the sample successfully represents the different people in a population

experiment

a set of observations that are conducted under controlled conditions for the purpose of studying a relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable; shows cause/effect

skewed results of an experiment

can occur due to bias or unknown confounding variables

correlational studies

allows researchers to predict the relationship between 2 variables as well as its strength and direction; doesn’t show cause/effect

survey

self-reported data from questions that ask for people’s opinions or information about their actions; useful for collecting large amounts of data

skewed results of a survey

can occur due to the wording effect or the participants’ desire to “look good”

naturalistic observations

allows researchers to observe behaviors as they occur in a real setting

skewed results of naturalistic observations and case studies

can occur due to the Hawthorne Effect

case studies

allows researchers to analyze different perspectives of a topic, including rare behaviors; data cannot be used to generalize a population

Hawthorne Effect

when participants of a study become aware that they are being observed and change their behaviors as a result

longitudinal studies

allows researchers to analyze a particular population over a long period of time; useful for observing long-term changes

cross-sectional studies

allows researchers to compare different populations at the same time; only provides a “snapshot” rather than the complete picture

hypothesis

a testable prediction that is made before any research is completed

theory

a statement that is supported by data from previously completed research and explains a question, thought, or phenomena

independent variable

cause

dependent variable

effect

confounding variable

a variable other than the independent variable that can impact the dependent variable

third variable problem

when the results of an experiment/study are skewed due to confounding variables

random assignment

when each participant in an experiment/study has an equal chance of being put into either the control group or the experimental group

single-blind procedure

when participants in an experiment/study are unaware of whether they’re in the control group or the experimental group

double-blind procedure

when both the participants and the researchers in an experiment/study are unaware of whether they’re in the control group or the experimental group

placebo effect

when participants of an experiment/study act differently because they expect a certain outcome

placebo

a substance that is given to the control group of an experiment; it’s similar to the independent variable but excludes key components

quasi-experimental design

used when controlled experiments aren’t possible or are unethical; doesn’t include random assignment of participants

reliability

the repeatability of a study

validity

how well a study measures what it’s supposed to measure

hindsight bias

when a participant claims that they knew the outcome of a study after it has already occurred; prevented by using pre-assessments

false consensus effect

when a participant of a study overestimates how many others share their opinions/ideas; prevented by presenting alternative viewpoints

confirmation bias

when a participant of a study focuses on only the information that aligns with their personal viewpoint and ignores conflicting information; prevented by being self-aware and ensuring the reliability of the study

experimenter bias

when a researcher unknowingly influences the outcome of a study; prevented by having clear operational definitions

social desirability bias

when a participant of a study purposely skews their response to create a more favorable impression of themself; prevented by using anonymity

quantitative data

numbers or facts that aren’t open for interpretation

qualitative data

descriptions that are open for interpretation

descriptive statistics

used to organize and describe collected data

inferential statistics

used to make predictions about collected data to better determine if it can be applied to a population

probability value

used to determine whether or not collected data is statistically significant and isn’t a result of chance

central tendency

mean, median, mode

mean

the average of all values

median

the middle value

mode

the value that occurs most often

range

the difference between the highest value and the lowest value

standard deviation

allows researchers to indicate the average distance from the mean

normal distribution

mean, median, and mode are in the center; symmetrical

positive skew

an abundance of low values; clustered to the left of the mean

negative skew

an abundance of high values; clustered to the right of the mean

bimodal distribution

multiple modes

percentile

used to compare data with the rest of a population

correlation coefficient

used to determine the strength of correlation via its distance from 1

positive correlation

when the correlation coefficient is between 0 and 1

negative correlation

when the correlation coefficient is between -1 and 0

Institutional Review Board

ensures the experiments/studies at colleges are set up in a way that protects everyone involved

informed consent

when an individual agrees to be part of a study after receiving adequate information about it