revoloutions

Catherine de Medici/Henri III

Catherine ruled for Henri because very young, peace with Huguenots, one of first European countries to escape conflict, kills all noble Huguenots at wedding of daughter Marie and Henri of Navarre

War of the Three Henris

Henri III with Duke of Guise (Catholics) v. Henri of Navarre (Protestants)

Edict of Nantes

1598; first major act of religious toleration in Europe; Protestants could not be king/nobles (especially in big cities like Paris), but gave them right to lower ranked government jobs, stockpile weapons, and build churches

ended by Louis XIV

Henri IV

very responsible with money, never asked estate-general for help, weakened aristocratic control over finances, French trend towards absolute monarchy, one of most prominent French leaders (killed for being too nice to Huguenots, even mourned by Catholics)

Louis XIII

son of Henri IV and Marie de Medici, Marie becomes regent until he is of age, gets prime minister to run alongside him, estates-general agrees to all her requests but then ask her not to call on them again, not called on again for 179 years

began the Bourbon dynasty

Richelieu

cardinal in catholic church although Louis XIII protestant, took blame for all bad things that happened under Louis, got to be high ranking official through lay investiture and support of Henri IV, so very loyal to Bourbon family, wanted to eliminate noble power

intendents

middle class civil-servants hired by Richelieu to replace the nobles, answer to the community rather than just other nobles/self interests

thirty years war

starts as civil war in holy roman empire (protestants and catholics), Richelieu fund Adulphus (Lutheran Sweden king) to join battle and defeat HRE, Richelieu invades HRE himself when Adulphus dies, France large contributor to fall of HRE

Louis XIV (ruled 1643-1715)

almost overthrown by nobles when young so decides to intimidate them; moves to grand palace in versailles, watches over all nobles who he convinced to move there with them, no one to stop him when he made mistakes; fought too many wars, kicked Huguenots out of France, revoked Edict of Nantes

limited constitutional monarchy

shifts power from monarch to people through use of a constitution

Magna Carta (1215)

beginning of english constitution, created against King John I (opposed for raising taxes a lot)

Mary I (bloody mary)

daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, ruled because son Edward died young, first female monarch of England, married to Philip the Fair, kills fewer people over religion than any other Tudor, dies of cancer

Philip the Fair

son of Charles V, marries Mary I of England, not allowed to become king because foreigner, so becomes her royal escort, rejected by Elizabeth I and becomes archrival of England (Spain)

Elizabeth I

chosen by mary i to be queen (even though protestant), never gets married, paints herself white to be symbol of purity, doesn’t want to be seen as woman so she isn’t pushed around by parliament, appealed to common people rather than nobles

Spanish Armada (1588)

philip ii of Spain invades england, english win against him, none of the catholic people rose up against Elizabeth I while weak, leads to end of religious seperation (between Christians)

James I

successor to Elizabeth I, cousin to her, wanted to be absolute monarch (wrote True Law of Free Monarchy)

discredited because of belief in divine right of kings (two women had just ruled, not believed in anymore) and Scottish

created King James Version of Bible (only thing really appreciated for)

divine right of kings

the belief that english kings were given right to rule through God

Charles I

successor to James I, always broke but wanted more money to better military, raised taxes a lot, later limited by parliament

fought English Civil War against supporters of parliament and lost

Oliver Cromwell

successor to Charles I, puritan, wanted religious freedom for protestants, dictator of England, called himself Lord Protector of England, drafts constitution known as Instrument of Government, but later abandons democracy

outlaws Christmas, pubs, theaters (very Puritan)

Charles II

successor to Cromwell, son of Charles I, decides not to be absolute monarch, happy just being king

James II

successor to Charles II, wants to move england past religious fighting, passes law giving religious freedom to all Christians

1688; killed by daughter in Glorious Revolution

habeas corpus

right to be presented before a judge before imprisoned

Mary II

daughter and heir of James II, co-monarchs with William II, has to acknowledge English Bill of Rights, had to frequently consult parliament, banned Catholic monarchs, parliament becomes dominant part of government

Anne

sister and successor of Mary II, challenged a lot by parliament, fails to have male heir and to override parliament

George I

cousin and successor to Anne, German, cannot speak English, everything run by Parliament

George II

son and successor to George I, spoke english but with thick german accent, not respected as much

george iii

son and successor to george ii, ruled during american revolution, lots of physical and mental health issues so basically kept under house arrest, not much absolute power

prime minister

three georges become very dependent on parliament, majority leader becomes their closest advisor, known as prime minister, in charge of creating bureaucracy; robert walpole first prime minister

protestant revolution

caused by loss of respect for catholic church, humanism, rise of new monarchies, resistance against charles v

lutheran princes rebel, middle class rebel (want to manage own affairs), poor rise up against social order (Peasant’s Revolt)

tithe

members of catholic church had to give 10% of income to the church

primogeniture

all land and titles go to first born son

simony

the selling of jobs in the church, donate money to bribe church, lots of second born sons (spare to the heir)

absenteeism

mass leaders/priests hired through simony don’t show up, cannot atone with no priest, sins build up

indulgences

sold by catholic church, “goodness points” that could build up against sins, help (rich) people get into heaven and escape purgatory

purgatory

catholic belief of a “waiting room” for heaven

yohan tetzil

advertised indulgences (wrote songs for them), told people they could buy indulgences for other people (even if they had already died)

treasury of grace

the extra “goodness points” accumulated throughout centuries, pope wrote checks for them (sold as indulgences), could transfer to others once bought to get them out of purgatory (not hell)

pope julius ii

led most corrupt time for catholic church, led own armies into battle

john wyclif

pointed out flaws in catholic church, worked in england to remove the clergy

john huss

head of university so trusted, said to embrace humanism because of educated middle class, proposed to get rid of clergy

(second) great schism

france elected own pope, both popes excommunicated each other, italy chose new pope, italian pope dies, ended with council of constance

council of constance

two popes (french and original) come together to compromise

john huss invited to “share ideas”, false trial, burned at the stake

body of john wyclif dug up and excommunicated

diet of worms

council held in HRE to address luther and protestantism, luther invited, thought he would be excommunicated and killed too but protected by Fredrick

Frederick the Great Elector

one of the seven people who voted for emperor, wanted to gain power and was scared of charles v because he was spanish, hides and protects luther and has him write protestant books to weaken charles v power; never converted to protestantism though

martin luther of wittenburg (1483-1546)

opposed roman catholic church, did not like indulgences

led spread of protestantism with his writing of the ninety-five theses

the ninety-five theses

written by martin luther, addressing things he saw wrong with catholic church, created basis for protestantism

protestants

people who opposed the catholic church and (originally) followed luther’s ideas

got their name for protesting against the catholic church

johannes gutenberg

invented mechanical moving type, introduced printing to europe, spread luther’s german translation of the bible (led to greater literacy in germany)

john calvin

lawyer, became protestant in 1530s, wrote institutes on the christian religion (1536), agreed with luther on many of his ideas

lutherism

form of protestantism that follows the ideas of martin luther

calvinism

form of protestantism that follows the idea of john calvin; main distinction that they believe fate predetermined from when you are born and there is nothing you can do to change it

treaty/peace of westphalia

ended the thirty years war, almost all european states agreed to see each other as independent and sovereign

seven years war

France, Austria, Russia, against Britain and Prussia, merged with war between Britain and France in India and North America

king phillip ii of spain

tried to repress calvinism in netherlands, dutch provinces formed anti-spanish alliances, declared themselves as united provinces (not recognized by spain until end of thirty years war)

absolutism

the belief in absolute principles, politics, government, etc.

monarch makes laws, no one else

romanov dynasty

russian absolutist family, led by tsar/czar, inherited already expanding empire

peter i/the great

romanov ruler, wanted russia to be a strong military power, toured europe for ideas, became obsessed with making russia more european (even in the way people dressed and acted)

catherine ii/the great

successor to peter i, part of the romanov family, divided empire into 50 provinces, also wanted to expand military power, restricted punishments noble could used on their serfs (seemed to care a lot about ending unusual punishments, but stopped when opposed)

english reformation

a period of religious change in england, including the creation of the church of england

king henry viii

member of the tudor family, king of england, wanted to divorce wife but pope did not allow him, so broke england away from the church and created his own church that he was the head of (anglican church)

catholic/counter reformation

sixteenth century, define doctrines and differences between catholicism and protestantism, also wanted to persuade protestants to return

council of trent

assemblies of bishops, cardinals, other high church officials, drew on ideas of st thomas aquinas, defined theology of catholic church in detail, all priests had to go to a school to be trained, stopped sale of indulgences, turned to Society of Jesus to help them clean up

Society of Jesus/Jesuits

branch of catholocism, founded by st ignatius loyola, very advanced education to join, known for discipline and determination, able to outargue a lot of people, counselors to kings and rulers, most prominent missionaries outside of europe

charles v

leader of holy roman empire, had the ability to create one unified europe with his power, but failed because of protestant reformation, member of habsburg family

ferdinand and isabella of spain

got married, united both sides of spain

mad joanne

only child of ferdinand and isabella, married to philip the fair of spain, gives birth to charles v

henry tudor/vii

start of tudor dynasty in england, father of henry viii

new monarchs

henry viii of england, louis xi of france, francis i of france, ferdidnand and isabella of spain, gained power/control after call of holy roman empire, new ways to get wealth, enlarged royal staff

witch hunts

most prominent in germany/places with lots of conflict between catholics and protestants, believed certain people could influence others and discover secrets, 85% convicted were women, 45,000 burned or hung, many others excommunicated or imprisoned

inquisition

spanish “witch hunts”, used to root out people pretending to be catholic from the real catholics, established by ferdinand and isabella, people forced to repent (and be killed) or be punished/killed anyway, led to columbus exploration

auto de fe

the result of confessing to the inquisition; dressed up and paraded through town, burned at the stake at the end

early capitalism

Free market conditions, private ownership of goods and services 

Pushed merchants to compete against each other and reorganize businesses 

Scientific advancements

scientific revolution

Based more on fact and observation rather than classical Greek/Roman ideas; new vision of earth and universe, analysis of physical world; leads to advancements in math

Scientists began to be seen as intellectuals, medicine becomes real discipline, dissecting human body, figuring out how things work

claudius ptolemy

wrote the almagest, theorized about universe made of nine spheres, seven planets, one with stars, one with rest of the universe, heaven beyond last sphere

geocentric

a universe that revolves the earth

heliocentric

a universe that revolves around the sun

epicycles

an elliptical movement of a planet around some celestial body

nicolaus copernicus

wrote on the revolutions of the heavenly spheres, first pushed heliocentric universe idea, disliked because ideas contradicted with religious ideas

galileo galili

used a telescope to look at the sun/moon/other celestial bodies, showed how space is always changing/is not perfect, also disliked for believing copernican ideas

johannes kepler

showed how planet orbits are elliptical, not circular, elaborated on copernican ideas

issac newton

wrote mathematical principles of natural philosophy, united space+earth in one large cosmic system, argued law of gravity connects all things, explained his ideas with mathematical equations

william harvey

discovered principle of circulation of blood, very sexist, spread ideas with printing press

emilie du chatelet

female scientist, best known for translating newton’s mathematica principia into german, translation still used today

adam smith

big proponent of capitalism, seen as one of the first supporters (but not the official creator), wrote Wealth of Nations

said capitalism would lead society to prosper as if it were being controlled by an invisible hand (a natural process, not divine)

despot

a ruler who holds absolute power, usually one who uses it in a cruel or oppressive way

marie gouze/olympe de gouges

advocated for womens rights, wrote declaration of the rights of women and the female citizen, spread enlightenment ideas

popular sovereignty

legitimate political authority comes from the people in the society; done by America, followed by French, and others in Atlantic basin

john locke

english philosopher, studied politics, advocate for popular sovereignty, disliked divine right to rule and laid groundwork for glorious revolution

said government can never take away natural rights; life, liberty, and property, believes responsibility of government to protect these rights

big supporter of constitutional monarchy

Charles Louis de Secondat/Baron de Montesquieu

science of politics, political liberty needed for a prosperous state

suggested separation of powers in government so one doesn’t become too oppressive (checks and balances)

voltaire

published first book at seventeen, wrote ten thousand letters and seventy volumes, spread individual freedom, disliked oppressive/intolerant policies (French Monarchy and Roman Catholic church), battle cry écrasez l’infame (crush the damned thing)

wanted to end persecution of religious minorities, censorship by royal officials (prevented printers from spreading certain things)

imprisoned a lot for making fun of government/authority, so very concerned with free speech

deiism

believed in God but did not believe in supernatural occurrences told in Bible; God set universe in motion, established natural laws, did not take personal interest or intervene in affairs (used simile that God was like a watchmaker; creation operated on its own)

thomas hobbes

english philosopher, large part in modern political philosophy, best known for his book leviathan that defended absolute monarchy, very cynical, hates revolutionaries

theory of progress

many believed that humans would continue to progress in science and understanding of natural world, with understanding would come era of constant progress; natural science lead to human control over the world, rational science lead to individual freedom, prosperity and equality in societies  

democratic society

all citizens participate in political affairs

republican society

delegates represented interests of constituencies

aristocratic society

weak central leadership, privileged elites lead public affairs 

philosophes

french philosophers that led the spread of enlightenment ideas

jean jacques rousseau

French-Swiss thinker, identifies with working people, disliked privileges given to elite class; published The Social Contract, 1762, all members of society participate directly in formation of policy/laws, said royalty and aristocracy needed to be removed for general will of people to rise

people joined society to advance their own interests, not sacrifice them

conservatism

society changes slowly over generations

edmund burke

british conservative philosopher, believed rapid change could only lead to anarchy