Roman Culture Exam 1

What are the three main periods of Roman history (including their dates)?

Monarchy (753-509 BC)

Republic (509-31 BC)

Late Republic (133-31 BC)

Empire (Imperial Period) (31 BC – AD 476)

Each period of Roman history is characterized by the

form of government

Monarchy (753-509 BC)

Founded by Romulus and Remus, twins of the god Mars

Sequence of seven kings

Religious institutions and cultural institutions established

One of hundred city-states in Italy, often under the control of more powerful city-states (Estruscans)

Republic (509-31 BC)

Revolution, last Estruscan king, Tarquin the Proud expelled from Rome

Military expansion through Italy

Constant warfare

Unique policy to the treatment of conquered cities, granted partial citizenship instead of enslaving → contributed troops to Roman army

Constitution developed → annually elected magistrates, legal code, balance of powers among different organs of the state

Punic wars (264 BC – 146 BC)

After second punic war (281-201 BC), armies highly professionalized and conquered nearly the entire Mediterranean basin

Late Republic (133-31 BC)

Bloody civil wars

Ceasar and Pompey the Great

Assassination of Ceasar → son Octavian (Augustus) took over

Empire (Imperial Period) (31 BC – AD 476)

Octavian established himself as a dominant figure

Relative stability and prosperity

Third century AD

• Barbarian invasions, economic turmoil, political instability

312 AD

• Constantine became first emperor to convert to Christianity

• Empire spilt between eastern and western halves

• Western fragmented into numerous barbarian kingdoms

• Eastern (Byzantine), Constantinople capital existed for many centuries, falling to Ottoman Turks in 1453’

How do the Romans explain the origins of their city?

Aeneads, Trojan who escaped the destruction of his city by the Greeks, landed in Italy and founded city of Lavinum

Romulus and Remus: Romulus became king by usurping the throne from his brother

What roles do the gods play in Rome’s founding and continued success?

Deeply influencing its identity and statecraft

Roman religious practices, including rituals and the deification of emperors, reinforced the idea that divine favor was essential for Rome’s prosperity

The gods symbolized key Roman values

Success depends on the good will of the gods

Describe the natural features and advantages of Rome's location.

Tiber River: Irrigation, water, transportation, disposal of waste, access to sea, maritime trade, and communication without being on the coast

Several Hills: Provide natural defensive sites which build fortresses for protection and offer locations to observe surrounding territories

Valleys: Many natural springs, sources of natural drinking water, advantageous place to build a city, most central parts of the city located around valleys

Seven hills of Rome

Capitoline: smallest but most important

Palatine: central hill of Rome

Aventine: southernmost hill

Quirinal: long ridge

Viminal: ridge paralleling the Quirinal to the South and probably least important

Esquiline: large bluff with various ridges extending out from it

Caelian: narrow ridge curving to the south of the Esquiline

How were the seven hills of Rome formed?

volcanic eruptions: Belched forth ash and debris that was deposited in the plains around the Tiber River, formed into hills and mounds by water

What is Tuff and what are some of its uses?

Volcanic stone: accretion of ash from the eruptions, used as building materials

Which two groups influenced Roman culture during the Monarchy and in which areas of society was their influence especially significant?

Greek (art, gods, pottery, alphabet, architecture, literature) and Etruscan (art, architecture, engineering, religious rituals)

Describe six major public works completed at Rome during the Monarchy

Cloaca Maxima: “great drain”, drains groundwater around the Palatine & Capitoline

Forum Romanum: “Roman Forum”, political, religious, legal, and commercial center

Forum Boarium: “Cattle Market”

Pons Sublicius: 1st Bridge at Rome

Circus Maximus: venue for chariot racing

Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus

What are the dominant characteristics of the Early Republic?

Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus

Instutionalization of the Vestal Virigin cult

Servian Wall, the first comprehensive set of defensive walls for the city

Appius (censor of Rome) paved the north-south road

Earliest aqueduct

First stone bridge was built

Docks along the Tiber were improved

Porticus Aemilia was built

Roman Expansion

What are the dominant characteristics of the Late Republic?

Development of buildings relating to politics in the area of the Roman Forum: senate house, platform where speakers could address crowds in the Forum, office to house important public records

Breakdown of constitutional government, internal strife, rise of the individual, aristocratic competition

What are some notable achievements of Augustus?

First emperor

Reorganizing city, diving it into 14 districts → 14 Augustan regions

Repaired all buildings that fallen into neglect during civil wars

Buildings constructed using marble

Overhauled infrastructure

Works of propaganda

What are some notable achievements of Vespasian?

Established Flavian dynasty

Returning the city to the people

Razed the Golden House and built the Flavian Amphitheater

Skilled military leader and administrator

Supresses 1st Jewish Revolt (66-73)

Public works: temple of peace and Colosseum

What are some notable achievements of Trajan?

Build a new forum north of old Roman Forum

Famous column and Markets of Trajan

Supported by Senate, army, and people

Building program (baths, forum, markets, and column)

Greatest geographical extent

What are some notable achievements of Hadrian?

Hadrian's Wall, to protect the border in Northern Britain

The Pantheon

The Temple of Venus and Roma, the largest temple of Ancient Rome

Suppresses 2nd Jewish Revolt (132-135)

Building program (public and private)

Eye on stability and peace

What are some notable achievements of Constantine?

First Christian emperor

Focused attention on new capital city of Constantinople

Build famous arch and basilica

Rise of Christianity: Legalizes all religions within Roman empire

Constantinople as “New Rome”

What role do aqueducts play in the growth of Roman cities?

Bringing more than a million cubic meters of fresh water to the city everyday

Distributed to the populace through pipes that delivered water to nearly 1500 public fountains, pools, and almost 900 public and private baths

Who built the first Roman aqueduct and when?

Appius Claudius, 312 BC

At the direction of which emperor was Rome's system of aqueducts and sewers first restored and extended?

Augustus

Marcus Vipsanius

Which architectural form was primarily utilized for building aqueducts aboveground?

Bridges constructed using rounded stone arches

How did the Romans typically find suitable water sources outside of Rome?

looking for mist or a lake and checking the water quality

talking to the local inhabitants around a water source to see what their complexions are like

• If they looked healthy, that might mean that their water source was pure and worth tapping

Did the Romans have any way to clean or purify water delivered by aqueducts?

clean the water delivered by their aqueducts through a system of settling basins that slowed the water flow

allowing heavier impurities to settle out, and by exposing the water to air through the aqueduct's design

Did the use of lead pipes in Rome likely cause widespread health problems?

Roman water supply mitigated the unhealthy effects of lead

water in the Roman aqueducts rarely stopped running

Periodically, they would clean the aqueducts

How was water made available to non-elite Romans and what was the cost?

Most people would get their water from street basins, where the water was free

What is our primary written source of information about the Roman water supply?

The Aqueducts of Rome, Sextus Julius Frontinus

Describe the basic principles and features of the Roman aqueduct system

One continuous flow system, few valves to turn the flow of water on and off

Entire system operated on gravity

Graded so the water flowed fast enough to prevent stagnant pools and backflow

Channels were made from variety of materials; stone lined with hydraulic cement and pipes made of clay or lead

Water would enter large settling takes, distributed to storage towers called castella

In addition to supplying potable water to the people of Rome, for what other purposes was water from aqueducts used?

⅓ used for purposes such as irrigation

⅓ used for public fountains, baths, basins

Remainder used for emperor + imperial bath

What was the primary function of Rome's Cloaca Maxima?

removing water that pooled on the city’s uneven streets and draining water from low-lying areas when the adjacent Tiber River flooded, draining

What were some common dangers associated with private toilets and with public latrines?

Roman version of toilet paper in many cases was a communal sponge on a stick

flames exploded from their seat openings

Caused by gas explosions of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and methane (CH4)

rats and other small vermin threatening to bite their bottoms

perceived threat of demons

Who built Rome's first major road and when?

4th century BC: 1st major road built by Appius Claudius Caecus (Via Appia)

Most roads built by Roman soldiers

What were the main uses of Rome's roads and how did roads contribute to Rome's expansion and security?

Helped Romans keep control of the empire by enabling troops to be rushed to trouble spots

Encouraged and facilitated long-distance trade and bolstered the economy

Sped up communication among the different regions of the empire

Served as a symbolic marker that the territory was Roman

Describe the basic features of a typical Roman road

Originally dirt, then stone and gravel paving

Crowned in the center so that water flowed down towards the sides and into gutters

Raised sidewalks, stepping stones that predestrians use to cross a flooded street

Graded to drain water off of them

Who was eligible to be a Roman citizen and what are the benefits of citizenship?

Had to be an adult, free male

You had to have passed the census, which indentified age, geographical origin, family, wealth, and moral value

AD 212: Caracalla declared that all adult, male, free inhabitants of the empire would now be citizens

Main duties of a citizen was to fight in the army, and then vote

Granted protection under the law

What was the "Conflict of the Orders" and what was the outcome?

Roman citizens were seperated into two groups: patricians and plebeians

Patricians were only eligible to hold public office, laws dictated that patricians could only marry other patrician families

Distinctions caused social unrest → conflict of the orders

Privileges of pratricians were eroded and eventually elimated

Patricians and plebians were allowed to legally intermarry

Describe the basic features of the Roman patronage system during the Republic and how the system changed during the reign of Augustus

Developed as a way to link together Romans of various status

Powerful men serve as patrons to a group of social or economic inferiors (clients), patrons provided financial or legal help and protection, where clients would perform actions that enhanced prestige and reputation of patrons

With Augustus as the sole emperor, many citizens looked to him as their primary patron, relying on his largesse and protection instead of individual senators

the influence of individual senators was diminished as citizens increasingly relied on the emperor for support

Describe the "Cycle of Governments" and how the Roman Republic "breaks" the cycle according to the Greek historian Polybius

Monarchy → tyranny → aristocracy → oligarchy → democracy → anarchy

Roman Republic "breaks" the cycle of governments through its mixed constitution, which incorporates elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy

Describe the basic political structure of the Republic, including major responsibilities and terms of appointment.

Core of the government centered around a series of magistracies

Officeholders obtained position by election, served one year terms, and had to meet minimum age requirements for each office

Each office was collegial: more than one person held the same title at the same time

2 Consuls (chief magistrates; elected annually)

Senate (advisory council; appointed for life)

3 Popular Assemblies (elections, pass/repeal laws)

What is the Cursus Honorum?

Course of Offices

Quaestorship

lowest magistracy

Supposed to be 30yo

In charge of a range of financial affairs

Monitoring taxation, overseeing financial matters in a province, controlling government finances

Originally 2, but number grew to 20 over time

Aedileship

Had to be 36yo

Four elected each year

Responsible for a number of urban affairs

Maintaining and repairing urban infrastructure, monitoring the market to ensure fair trade and enforce uniform standards of weights and measures, staging public festivals

Praetors

Had to be 39yo

Number gradually increased over time

Maininly swerve judicial functions

Overseeing law courts and running the judiciary system

Consuls

Had to be 42yo

Two elected each year

Acted as the chief executives of the state

Served as the generals of Rome’s armies

What are the three symbols of power for the uppermost magistrates?

Sella Curulis (curule chair)

Toga Praetexta (bordered toga)

Lictores (lictors / bodyguards)

Fasces (bundle of rods and axes)

What are the four primary types of activities that take place in the Forum Romanum and what are some of the buildings that supported each of those activities during the Republic?

Political: eart of the city and the focal point for Roman political and legal activity

Religious: many of the most important shrines and temples

Legal and Commericial: Basilica Julia and Basilica Aemilia

What are the major changes to the Forum Romanum during the Empire?

Old shops taken over by bankers and moneylenders, while new shops housed butches

Merchants were displaced, construction of Basilica Aemilia and Julia

Speaker’s platform built → Rostra: Augustus constructed a new one with a larger venue

Buildings started to encroach on the open space of the Roman Forum

Basilicas replaced shops and houses

Larger buildings (monumental): Basilicas

Victory monuments

Name at least two building types that contribute to the monumentality of the Roman Forum during the Republic.

Basilica Aemila

Basilica Sempronia

Basilica Opimia

Basicila Porcia

Describe how Augustus contributes to the evolution of the Roman Forum.

Completes Rostra Julia, Curia Julia, Basilica Julia, rebuilds Basilica Aemilia

Builds temple of divine Julius Cesear

Adding to the grandeur of the Roman Forum

Rebuilding of Temple of Saturn, the Castors, Regia, Temple of Concord

Describe three principle traits that guide Roman society

Mos maiorum (tradition)

Virtus (civic virtue)

Pietas (duty towards family, country, gods)

Describe the basic structure of an elite Roman family (be sure to use Latin terms as appropriate

Paterfamilias (father of the family / head of household) held pater potestas (paternal power) over all members of extended family, gave him ultimate authority and control over their lives

Gens (extended family, common ancestor, could be real or legendary)

Familia (immediate family)

What are some of the roles filled by non-elite Roman women?

Women in poor families had to work hard, just like the men

Worked as vendors, learned a trade

Tavern keepers, waitresses, barmaids, cooks

Prostitution

Supervising the upbringing and education of children and maintaining the smooth daily running of the household

Self-effacing and provide support for the Paterfamilias

What are some of the roles filled by elite Roman women?

upper-class girls were raised in the household, education varied from house to house

How to spin thread and weave clothing

Once married, became subject to her husband → his property

Running husband’s household, supervising slaves and overseeing education of young children

Spinning wool, weaving cloth, sewing

Spend most of the time within the confines of the household

Supposed to be modest and chaste

Medicial profession

What kind of information about women is typically presented in inscriptions and literary sources?

Republican ideal of womanhood in literature: frugality, industriousness, restraint, piety, self-effacement, obedience to one’s husband, and ability to control one’s emotions and maintain a stocial demeanor

Women were derided and degraded, laws passed to regulate clothing and jewelry, suggesting dishonestly and falseness of character

Women died in childbirth, best guide for the ideal qualities of a wife

Describe the basic elements of a Roman marriage, including who can arrange a marriage and for what purposes.

Boys were ready for marriage at 14, girls at 12

Allowed marriages between closer family members

Up until 217AD, soldiers were not allowed to marry

Nearly all marriages were arranged by the parents

Marriages were seen as political tools and as a way to cement an allliance between two families or political factions

Marriage viewed as a religious duty whose goal was to produce children and to ensure that family gods will continue to be worshipped

Manus (hand) marriages

Women were regarded as a piece of property that was passed from the hand of the father to the hand of the husband

Sine manu (without hand)

wife (no dowry) remains under father’s potestas

Paedagogus

first teacher, educated Greek slave who could give instruction in Latin and Greek

Litterator

teacher, man who made individual contracts with parents to instruct their children in reading, writing, and arithmetic

Grammaticus

teacher of the more advanced levels

Rhetor

Specialist in training students to be effective public speakers

What is the central domestic task for women in the home?

Spinning wool, weaving

Childbirth

What are some public places that women may/may not visit?

Where the men are

Forum, law court, senate house

What are some symbols of a woman's betrothal to her future husband?

Insignia of betrothal, engagement ring and all the gifts her future husband gave her

Describe the major sources of information about Roman slavery

Literature

Legal texts

• Twelve Tables (450 BC)

• Gaius, Institutes (2nd century AD)

• Justinian, Digest (6th century AD)

Inscriptions / epitaphs

Material culture

• Sculptures, reliefs, paintings, mosaics

• Villas, shops, inns

• Workshops, shackles, collars

What are Rome's major sources of slaves?

Military conquest

Describe the basic features of manumission

The act of freeing a slave

Occurred posthumously in a will or when a man became a paterfamilias and freed his childhood slave friend

When the savings reached a certain amount, they could buy their own freedom

Describe how slaves are treated like property

When a slave ran away, it was viewed as theft because “he had stolen himself from his master”

Even normally humane slave owners may abuse their slaves in moments of anger

Slaves were branded and had tags

The only way a slave’s testimony was considered valid was if they had been tortured

Describe the three major types of slave-labor.

Domestic slaves: cooking, cleaning, childcare, entertainers, grooming, security

Industrial: shop, rural estate, production, mining

Public slaves: construction / maintence

Who established the Praetorian Guard at Rome and for what purposes?

Augustus

Intended to serve as bodyguards of the emperor

Accompanying the emperor wherever he went, protection extended to other members of the imperial family

One cohort always on duty on the Palatine hill in and around the imperial palace

Played a role in the selection of the next emperor