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Reformation
Split in Christianity into Catholicism and Protestantism initiated by Martin Luther's criticism of the Catholic Church's abuses, such as the sale of indulgences, leading to religious wars and the formation of various Protestant denominations.
Thirty-Years War
A religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics in Germany resulting in the Peace of Westphalia, which renewed the Peace of Augsburg, maintained Germany's division, and established France as a dominant European power.
Scientific Revolution
Spread of scientific ideas, including the scientific method and new discoveries in astronomy, physics, and chemistry, leading to the Enlightenment and the belief that natural laws govern societies.
Enlightenment
Intellectual movement advocating for religious toleration, freedom of speech, and the rights of individuals, with key thinkers like Voltaire, Hobbes, Locke, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Diderot, and Wollstonecraft promoting ideas of democracy, separation of powers, and women's rights.
Deism
Belief held by Enlightenment thinkers that God created the universe but does not intervene in human affairs, rejecting the idea of miracles and emphasizing rationality and natural laws.
Enlightened Despots
Rulers like Catherine the Great, Joseph II, and Frederick the Great who implemented reforms such as legal codes, religious tolerance, and education, without claiming divine right, aiming to govern in the best interests of their people.
French Revolution
Period marked by phases like the Liberal or Moderate Phase, Radical Phase, Reign of Terror, and the Directory, leading to the Napoleonic Code, which centralized the government, abolished feudal privileges, and emphasized equality before the law.
Nationalism
Ideology leading to the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership by Bismarck, the formation of the Austro-Hungarian Empire due to nationalism in the Austrian Empire, and the 1848 Revolutions where Czechs and Hungarians revolted against the existing order.
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