Field Methods

Research

systematic/methodical, rigorous/thorough investigation of a situation or problem in order to understand existing knowledge, validate existing knowledge, and/or generate new knowledge

Quantitative Research

A means for testing objective theories by examining the relationships among variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on instruments, so that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures. The final written report has a set structure consisting of introduction, literature and theory, methods, results, and discussion (Creswell 2008).

Qualitative Research

A means for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. The process of research involves emerging questions and procedures. Data is typically collected in the participant's setting, data analysis inductively builds from particulars to general themes, and the researcher makes interpretations of the meaning of the data. The final written report has a flexible structure. Those who engage in this form of inquiry support a way of looking at research that honors an inductive style, a focus on individual meaning, and the importance of rendering the complexity of a situation (adapted from Creswell, 2007).

Mixed Methods research

An approach to inquiry that combines or associates both qualitative and quantitative forms. It involves philosophical assumptions, the use of qualitative and quantitative approaches, and the mixing of both approaches in a study. Thus, it is more than simply collecting and analyzing both kinds of data; it also involves the use of both approaches in tandem so that the overall strength of a study is greater than either qualitative or quantitative research (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007).

Worldview (paradigm)

refers to "a basic set of beliefs that guide an action" (Guba. 1990, p. 17 cited by Creswell, 2008).

Worldview

is a general orientation about the world and the nature of research that a researcher holds. These are shaped by the discipline area of the student, the beliefs of advisers, and faculty in a student's area and past research experiences.

Paradigm

is a set of assumptions and perceptual orientations shared by members of a research community. It determine how members of research communities view both the phenomena their particular community studies and the research methods that should be employed to study those phenomena. It is based on: ontology, epistemological worldview, and methodology.

Ontology

the study of being, which is concerned with what actually exists in the world about which humans can acquire knowledge. It helps researchers recognize how certain they can be about the nature and existence of objects they are researching. People would ask questions like, "Does God exist?", "What exists in a society?", "Is free will real?" Such questions are concerned with whether or not social reality exists independently of human understanding and interpretation.

Realism

• One truth exists

• Truth can be discovered using objective measurements

• Generalizable

Relativism

• Multiple versions of reality

• Shaped by context

• Truth evolves and changes

Epistemology

the study of knowledge. It is concerned with all aspects of the validity, scope and methods of acquiring knowledge, such as a) what constitutes a knowledge claim; b) how can knowledge be acquired or produced; and c) how the extent of its transferability can be assessed.

Etic Approach

taking an outsider's view of someone else's situation

Emic Approach

subjective approach to reality.

Methodology

How knowledge is discovered and analyzed in a systematic way. Refers to philosophies that guide how knowledge should be gathered. More specific and practice based.

The appropriate methodology is driven by one's ontological and epistemological beliefs since methods like experiments or interviews have varying degrees of objectivity.

Postpositivism

• represented the traditional form of research, and these assumptions hold true more for quantitative research than qualitative research.

• Other terms for this worldview: scientific method or doing science research, positivist/ postpositivist research, empirical science,

Constructivism

• Typically seen as an approach to qualitative research.

• Hold assumptions that individuals seek understanding of the world in which they live and work.

• Individuals develop subjective meanings of their experiences--meanings directed toward certain objects or things. Meanings are varied and multiple leading the researcher to look for complexity of views rather than narrowing meanings into few ideas/categories.

Advocacy and Participatory

• Typically seen with qualitative research, but it can be a foundation for quantitative research as well.

• Holds that research inquiry needs to be intertwined with politics and a political agenda. Thus, the research contains an action agenda for reform that may change the lives of the participants, the institutions in which individuals work or live, and the researcher's life.

• Issues such as empowerment, inequality, oppression, domination, suppression, and alienation. The researcher often begins with one of these issues as the focal point of the study.

Pragmatism

• Arises out of actions, situations, and consequences rather than antecedent conditions (as in postpositivism).

• Instead of focusing on methods, researchers emphasize the research problem and use all approaches available to understand the problem (see Rossman & Wilson, 1985).

• Problem-centered which uses all available approaches to understand the problem

• Uses a pluralistic approach to derive knowledge about the problem

Survey research

provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population. It includes cross-sectional and longitudinal studies using questionnaires or structured interviews for data collection, with the intent of generalizing from a sample to a population (Babbie, 1990 as cited by Creswell, 2008).

Experimental research

seeks to determine if a specific treatment influences an outcome. This impact is assessed by providing a specific treatment to one group and withholding it from another and then determining how both groups scored on an outcome.

Ethnographies

Studies of intact cultural groups in their natural setting over a prolonged period.

Grounded Theory

multiple stages of data collection to derive an abstract theory of a process or action.

Case studies

in-depth exploration of an event, activity, process, or one or more individuals.

Phenomenological research

understanding the 'lived experiences' or the 'essence' of a phenomenon

Narrative research

re-telling of individuals life stories.

Sequential mixed methods

procedures are those in which the researcher seeks to elaborate on or expand on the findings of one method with another method. May involved: [1] Beginning with QUALI to explore then proceeding with QUANTI with large sample; [2] Beginning with QUANTI to test theory then proceeding with QUALI to explore a few cases in detail.

Concurrent mixed methods

procedures are those in which the researcher converges or merges quantitative and qualitative data in order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem. Collect both QUALI and QUANTI data at the same time and integrate information in the interpretation of the results.

Transformative mixed methods

The use of a theoretical lens to provide a framework and methods of data collection that contain both QUALI and QUANTI data.

Research Methods

involve the forms of data collection, analysis, and interpretation that researchers propose for their studies

Collection of data

involves the use of instrument or test (e.g. set of questions about self-esteem, depression, anxiety, etc.), behavioral checklist (e.g. observations). Also involves, visiting a research site and observing behavior of individuals without predetermined questions and conducting interviews in which the individual is allowed to talk openly about a topic.

Data analysis

may be numeric (e.g. gathered on scales of instruments or text information) or nonnumeric such as recording and reporting the voice of the participants.

Data Interpretation

may involve interpreting statistical results or interpretation of themes or patterns that emerge from the data