European Renaissance, Reformation, and Scientific Revolution: Key Concepts and Developments

What major cultural movement revived classical texts and changed European views?

The Renaissance

Who is considered the father of Renaissance humanism?

Petrarch

What invention in the 1450s helped spread Renaissance ideas?

The printing press

What did the humanist revival of classical texts challenge?

The institutional power of universities and the Catholic Church

What was the focus of the Northern Renaissance compared to the Italian Renaissance?

The Northern Renaissance retained a more religious focus.

Which two reformers criticized Catholic abuses and established new interpretations of Christian doctrine?

Martin Luther and John Calvin

What was the Catholic Reformation exemplified by?

The Jesuit Order and the Council of Trent

What economic system emerged that promoted state control over commerce and colonies?

Mercantilism

What was the Columbian Exchange?

The exchange of new plants, animals, and diseases between the Old World and the New World.

What did the Protestant Reformation lead to in terms of state control?

Increased state control of religious institutions

What did the Jesuit Order aim to do during the Catholic Reformation?

Revive the Catholic Church and counter the Protestant Reformation.

What role did Christianity play in European exploration?

It served as a stimulus for exploration and justification for subjugation.

Which countries established overseas colonies in the 16th century?

Portugal and Spain

What was one impact of the Renaissance on education?

Shifted focus from theological writings to classical texts and scientific inquiry.

What did Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton contribute to during the Renaissance?

They developed a heliocentric view of the cosmos.

What was the significance of the Edict of Nantes?

It allowed religious pluralism in France to maintain domestic peace.

What did the rise of vernacular literature contribute to?

The development of national cultures.

What was one effect of the printing press on Protestant reformers?

It allowed them to disseminate their ideas widely.

Which economic change produced a new social elite in Europe?

The growth of commerce

What did anatomical discoveries by William Harvey challenge?

The traditional humoral theory of the body and disease.

What characterized the Mannerist and Baroque art movements?

Use of distortion, drama, and illusion.

What was a common belief about the cosmos during the Renaissance?

It was governed by spiritual forces.

What did Francis Bacon and René Descartes contribute to science?

They defined inductive and deductive reasoning and promoted experimentation.

What was the relationship between religious reform and state authority?

Religious reform provided justifications for challenging state authority.

What did the competition for trade among European powers lead to?

Conflicts and rivalries in the 17th and 18th centuries.

What was the impact of the Atlantic slave trade on the Americas?

It expanded in response to the establishment of a plantation economy.

What type of agriculture was predominant in most areas during early modern Europe?

Subsistence agriculture

What contributed to the accumulation of capital in early modern Europe?

The price revolution and commercialization of agriculture

What was the impact of serfdom in Eastern Europe?

Serfdom was codified, with nobles dominating economic life on large estates.

What led to revolts among peasants in early modern Europe?

Attempts by landlords to restrict or abolish traditional rights of peasants.

What demographic changes occurred in the 16th century?

Population recovered to pre-Great Plague levels, leading to uneven price increases.

How did migration to cities affect governance?

Migrants challenged merchant elites and craft guilds, straining resources.

What role did the family play in early modern European society?

The family was the primary social and economic institution.

How did the Renaissance and Reformation influence women's roles?

They raised debates about female education and women's roles in society.

What was the European marriage pattern, and how did it affect population growth?

Delayed marriage and childbearing restrained population growth and improved economic conditions.

What characterized leisure activities in early modern Europe?

They were organized according to the religious calendar and agricultural cycles.

What was the significance of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648?

It marked the end of the medieval ideal of universal Christendom and allowed local leaders control over religion.

What was the impact of the competitive state system on diplomacy?

It led to new patterns of diplomacy and warfare, diminishing the role of religion.

What was the military revolution?

Advances in military technology that changed warfare, requiring larger bureaucracies and heavier taxation.

What was the English Civil War about?

A conflict over the roles of monarchy, Parliament, and elites in governance.

What was the outcome of the Glorious Revolution?

It protected the rights of gentry and aristocracy from absolutism.

What characterized absolute monarchies in the 17th and 18th centuries?

They limited nobility's governance participation while preserving their social positions.

How did Louis XIV extend state control in France?

Through administrative, financial, military, and religious control over the population.

What was the result of the Polish monarchy's inability to consolidate authority?

Poland was partitioned by Prussia, Russia, and Austria.

What was the French Revolution's first phase?

It established a constitutional monarchy and increased popular participation.

What did the radical Jacobin republic do after the execution of Louis XVI?

Instituted the Reign of Terror and pursued de-Christianization.

What was the role of women in the early phases of the French Revolution?

Women participated enthusiastically, but citizenship was soon restricted to men.

What was the impact of the Little Ice Age on European society?

It led to economic and environmental challenges, influencing marriage and childbearing patterns.

What were communal norms enforced by local and church authorities?

Rituals of public humiliation to maintain social order.

What was the peak period for accusations of witchcraft?

Between 1580 and 1650, reflecting social and economic upheaval.

What was the significance of the balance of power in European diplomacy?

It structured diplomatic and military objectives post-Peace of Westphalia.

How did the competition for power affect governmental authority in European states?

It produced different distributions of authority among monarchs and minority groups.

What was the effect of the Habsburgs shifting their empire eastward?

It was a response to the limitations of sovereignty imposed by the Peace of Westphalia.

What was the outcome of Louis XIV's wars?

They provoked a coalition of European powers against him.

Who led the revolt of enslaved persons in Saint Domingue?

Toussaint L'Ouverture

What independent nation was formed from the revolt in Saint Domingue?

Haiti, established in 1804

What was Napoleon Bonaparte's role in relation to the French Revolution?

He imposed French control over much of Europe while claiming to defend the revolution's ideals.

What major reforms did Napoleon undertake as emperor?

He implemented enduring domestic reforms while curtailing some rights.

What military strategy did Napoleon use to control Europe?

New military tactics that allowed direct or indirect control over much of the continent.

What was the Congress of Vienna?

A meeting (1814-1815) aimed at restoring the balance of power in Europe after Napoleon's defeat.

How did the Agricultural Revolution impact food supply?

It raised productivity and increased the supply of food and agricultural products.

What economic system did European states follow during the early modern era?

Mercantilism, drawing resources from colonies.

What was the putting-out system?

A cottage industry where laborers produced goods for markets through merchant intermediaries.

What was the impact of the transatlantic slave-labor system in the 17th and 18th centuries?

It expanded due to increased demand for New World products.

What concepts did Enlightenment thought challenge?

Prevailing patterns of thought regarding social order, government institutions, and the role of faith.

Who were key intellectuals of the Enlightenment?

Voltaire, Diderot, Locke, and Rousseau.

What political model did Locke and Rousseau develop?

Models based on natural rights and the social contract.

What role did salons play in the Enlightenment?

They explored and disseminated Enlightenment culture.

What was the impact of print media during the Enlightenment?

It popularized Enlightenment ideas and contributed to the development of public opinion.

What new economic ideas challenged mercantilism?

Adam Smith's ideas advocating for free trade and a free market.

How did the Enlightenment influence religious practices?

It led to natural religion and demands for religious toleration.

What shift occurred in the arts during the 18th century?

A move from religious themes to an emphasis on private life and the public good.

What was Romanticism's stance towards Enlightenment rationality?

It emerged as a challenge to the exclusive reliance on reason.

What demographic changes occurred by the 18th century?

Higher agricultural productivity and improved transportation stabilized food supply and allowed population growth.

What was the consumer revolution of the 18th century?

A shift in concern for privacy and the purchase of new goods for homes.

What were the effects of urban migration in the 18th century?

Economic opportunities attracted migration, transforming urban life and creating social challenges.

What challenges did cities face due to increased migration?

Erosion of communal values, strain on city governments, and increased awareness of poverty and crime.

What was the role of emotions according to Rousseau?

He emphasized emotions in moral improvement, challenging Enlightenment rationality.

What was the significance of the Agricultural Revolution?

It allowed for more food production with fewer workers, leading to urban migration.

What was the impact of inoculation in the 18th century?

It reduced smallpox mortality significantly.