ap psych learning

Operant Conditioning

Shows how behaviors can be learned and modified based on the responses they generate in the environment.

Associative Learning

A process of learning in which an individual forms connections between events that occur together.

Classical Conditioning

A learning method where we associate two stimuli, enabling us to anticipate events.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning needed.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

A natural and automatic reaction to a stimulus that occurs without any prior learning or conditioning.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, evokes a conditioned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response that occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented, resulting from the association with an unconditioned stimulus.

Habituation

Occurs when organisms grow accustomed to and exhibit a diminished response to a repeated or enduring stimulus.

Acquisition

The initial learning of an association.

Positive Reinforcement

A stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated when it follows that behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

A stimulus that, when removed after a behavior, increases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

Stimulus

A trigger or signal that elicits a response.

Response

An automatic reaction to a stimulus.

Neutral Stimulus

A stimulus that initially does not elicit any intrinsic response.

Conditioning Process

The method by which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

Reinforcement

Any event that strengthens or increases the probability of a behavior.

Behavior Modification

The use of reinforcement and punishment to shape behaviors.

Emotional Response

A reaction that is influenced by the association of stimuli.

Learning Theory

A framework for understanding how behaviors are acquired and modified.

Extinction

The process in which the conditioned response weakens and eventually disappears when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest, suggesting that extinction does not erase the association but suppresses it temporarily.

Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond differently to them, learned through the conditioning process.

Stimulus Generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus, as a result of the conditioning process.

Higher-Order Conditioning

A process where a previously conditioned stimulus is used to create further associations with new neutral stimuli, resulting in those stimuli also eliciting a conditioned response.

Counterconditioning

Changing a learned response to something more preferred by pairing it with a different experience.

Taste Aversion

A learned association between the taste of a particular food and feeling sick, often occurring after only one pairing.

One-Trial Conditioning

Learning that happens quickly after just one pairing of two things.

Biological Preparedness

The innate tendency of organisms to quickly learn associations between certain stimuli and responses that are relevant to their survival, such as food and danger.

Aversive Conditioning

A type of conditioning that involves the use of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus to modify behavior.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Variable-Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Cognitive Map

A mental representation of the layout of one's environment.

Insight Learning

A sudden realization of a problem's solution, often occurring after a period of contemplation.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others and imitating their behavior.

Social Learning Theory

The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating the actions of others.

Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated.

Primary Reinforcers

Things we naturally like, such as food or water.

Secondary Reinforcers

Things we learn to like because they're connected to primary reinforcers.

Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again.

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again.

Shaping

Gradually reinforcing behaviors that are closer and closer to the desired behavior.

Instinctive Drift

Animals may revert to their natural instincts instead of learning new behaviors through training.

Superstitious Behavior

Accidental reinforcement of behaviors, leading to the belief that those behaviors are causing desired outcomes.

Reinforcement Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond appropriately based on the presence or absence of reinforcement.

Reinforcement Generalization

The tendency to respond similarly to different stimuli that are associated with the same reinforcement.

Reinforcement Schedules

Patterns determining when and how often reinforcement is given for a behavior, influencing the rate and persistence of that behavior.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time it occurs, leading to slower extinction but also less consistent responding.

Fixed Interval (FI)

Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement.

Variable Interval (VI)

Reinforcement is delivered after varying amounts of time have passed since the last reinforcement.

Fixed Ratio (FR)

Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses.

Variable Ratio (VR)

Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses.

Intermittent Rewards

The unpredictable nature of rewards that makes an activity compelling and difficult to discontinue.

Fixed Interval Scalloped Pattern

A response pattern where there is little to no response after a reward, increasing as the next reward approaches.

Post-Reward Pause

Initial lack of response after a reward is given.

Increasing Response Rate

The response rate peaks just before the next reward becomes available.

Behavioral Dynamics

The scalloped curve that illustrates how anticipation of reinforcement influences response timing.

Variable Ratio

A schedule demonstrating rapid accumulation of responses with reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.

High Motivation

Results in a high, steady response rate as the next reward is always potentially one response away.

Fixed Ratio

Shows a consistent pattern of pauses after each reward followed by a rapid response increase.

Break-and-Run Dynamics

Typical of fixed ratio schedules where subjects rapidly meet the set response requirement for reinforcement.

Variable Interval

Responses increase gradually with reinforcement given after unpredictable time intervals.

Moderate, Steady Rate

The rate of response fluctuates, slowing down after reinforcement and increasing as the interval lengthens.

Learned Helplessness

A belief that one has no control over their circumstances, leading to feelings of passivity.

Premack Principle

A principle stating that a less desirable activity can be performed to enable a more desirable activity.

Vicarious Conditioning

Learning by observing the consequences of others' actions without direct experience.

Mirror Neurons

Cells that fire both when an organism performs a behavior and when it observes another performing the same behavior.

Desensitization

Decreased activity of mirror neurons after repeated exposure to violence.