Dual US History: Peopling, Cultures, and European Colonization

Units 1.1 & 1.2 (60,000 BC - 1680 AD)

Beringia

A land bridge that once connected Asia and North America during the Ice Age. Humans used it to migrate into the Americas around 15,000-20,000 years ago.

Clovis

One of the earliest known groups in North America (around 13,000 years ago). Known for Clovis points, which are sharp spear tips used to hunt large animals like mammoths.

Three Sisters

Agricultural method of planting corn, beans, and squash together. Corn provides structure for beans to climb, beans add nutrients to the soil, and squash protects the ground.

Virgin Land Myth

European belief that the Americas were empty and free to claim. This justified colonization and the displacement of Indigenous peoples.

Arawak/Taino

Indigenous Caribbean peoples first encountered by Columbus. Their societies were disrupted by European contact.

Mississippian (Cahokia)

A pre-Columbian city near the Mississippi River with large mounds and trade networks.

Triple Alliance

Alliance between Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan; foundation of the Aztec Empire.

Caravel

A small, fast ship that allowed Europeans to travel farther, opening the Atlantic for exploration and trade.

Canary Islands

Used as a base for Atlantic voyages, sugar plantations, and preparation for New World exploration.

Columbian Exchange

Global transfer of plants, animals, people, and diseases after Columbus's voyages.

Mercantilism

Economic policy where colonies exist to enrich the mother country.

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

Divided the New World between Spain and Portugal, preventing European conflicts over territory.

Castas

Racial hierarchy in Spanish colonies to organize society and maintain power.

Conquistadors

Spanish explorers and soldiers who conquered Indigenous empires (Aztec and Inca), spreading European influence.

Encomienda

System giving Spanish settlers control over Native labor and tribute; exploited Indigenous people for wealth.

Repartimiento

Labor reform limiting the worst abuses of encomienda but still forced Native work.

Valladolid Debate

Debate over morality of Spanish treatment of Natives; shows early questioning of colonial ethics.

1588

Defeat of the Spanish Armada; allowed England to expand colonial presence in North America.

Pueblo Revolt

Successful Native resistance against Spanish control in New Mexico.

Louisiana

French colony important for trade and European rivalry.

Maroon

Communities of escaped African slaves resisting European control and slavery.

New Amsterdam

Dutch colony, later New York; example of European competition and diversity.

The Black Legend

Propaganda portraying Spanish as uniquely cruel; influenced other European powers' views and colonization strategies.

Charles Mann, 1491

Challenges the old idea that the Americas were sparsely populated 'virgin lands' and presents evidence of large, complex civilizations, advanced agriculture, and urban centers before European arrival.

Cahokia

An example of a large, complex civilization in the Americas before European arrival.

Changes in Theories of 'Peopling' the Americas

Early theory: Single migration through Beringia, few people, simple hunter-gatherers. Later theory: Multiple migrations, more diverse populations, earlier arrival dates, and complex societies.

'Broken Spears'

Provides the native viewpoint on the arrival of Cortés and the fall of the Aztec Empire, revealing fear, misunderstanding, and the consequences of disease and violence.

Role of Women in Native and Colonial Societies

Women had important social, political, and economic roles in many Native societies; European colonization often disrupted these roles.

New Spain

Exploitative, focused on labor and resource extraction; incorporated Native populations under rigid hierarchy (encomienda, castas).

New France

More cooperative, focused on trade (fur trade); alliances with Native groups were strategic.

Impact of Environment/Climate/Nature

Geography shaped settlement, agriculture, and trade; European settlers had to adapt to unfamiliar climates.

Intentions of Europeans in the New World

Wealth, land, resources, religious conversion, political dominance.

Consequences of Europeans in the New World

Native depopulation (disease, war), cultural disruption, creation of new societies, European rivalries.

Three Sisters agriculture

Agricultural method supported by fertile land, involving the cultivation of corn, beans, and squash.

Religious Reforms and Interactions

European missions spread Christianity and attempted cultural assimilation, justifying conquest and colonization.

Alliances with Native groups

Strategic partnerships formed by European colonies, particularly in New France.

Patriarchal structures

Social systems imposed by European colonization that limited women's power in Indigenous societies.

Cultural assimilation

Attempts by European missions to integrate Native populations into European cultural norms.

Depopulation

The significant decrease in Native populations due to disease and war following European contact.

Economic roles of women

Women were key in family, trade, agriculture, and culture in both Indigenous societies and colonial settlements.

European rivalries

Conflicts between European powers that influenced their colonization strategies in the New World.