society and economy - Russia

when were peasant land banks established? what did they do?

1883; A bank to allow peasants to borrow money at cheap rates to purchase land

what banks were established in 1885?

est Land Bank (even cheaper loans as peasants were taking over land ownerships)

when did the 1870s famine happen? how?

1878 famine;

widespread crop failures due to drought and poor harvests.

Alexander III blamed this on the poor farming of peasants and as the peasants were regarded as insolent, he employed special local officials, the land captains, to keep discipline in rural areas.

when was Sergei Witte appointed?

Minister of Finance in 1892, later becoming prime minister in 1905.

He played a key role in modernizing Russia's economy and implementing reforms.

how did Witte cause rural discontent?

Witte neglected agriculture which caused rural discontent and distrust from others in the government – one of the reasons for Witte’s downfall in 1903. His policies favoured urban growth, leading to increased taxation and land pressures on peasants.

what were Stolypin’s reforms?

A series of agricultural reforms initiated by Stolypin aimed at modernising Russia's agriculture, promoting land privatisation, and reducing peasant unrest. These reforms sought to create a class of prosperous independent farmers.

when were Stolypin’s reforms?

1906—1911, Stolypin's reforms aimed at modernising Russian agriculture.

when did rural unrest peak during Nicholas II’s time?

Rural unrest peaked in 1905—07, resulting from economic hardship and dissatisfaction with government policies.

What did Stolypin’s reforms include?

• Unused land given to Peasant Land Bank (est 1883) – these peasants could buy land on favourable terms.

• Strip-farming peasants could consolidate their land into small-holdings. This ensured that the mainstay of the Russian rural economy became the small independently-run peasant farms.

how did Stolypin’s reforms backfire?

• The process led to more peasants joining the wealthier class but they weren’t satisfied as they believed the best land wasn’t available to them.

• By 1914: ~2 million peasants had left the village communes– shortage of rural labour. This worsened due to the war + made it more difficult to have extra food for the urban population.

what did peasants do during the July days?

they forcibly took land

how many peasant attacks on property in June and July 1917?

700 in June and 1,100 in July

when and what was the decree on land?

(state capitalism) Decree on Land (nov 1917): private land divided and handed over to peasants– to ensure peasants were on their side. They abolished private land ownership.

compare 1921 grain harvest with 1924’s and 1925’s.

Grain harvest: in 1921 (37.6m tonnes)

→ in 1924 (51.4m tonnes)

→ 1925 (72.5m tonnes)

what 3 types of peasants did Lenin see?

• poor, middling and the kulak. 

what did Lenin blame kulaks for?

The kulaks were blamed for food shortages– punished by having their food and property taken.

why were kulaks respected within the peasants?

Kulaks were often seen as more prosperous, having greater resources and better living conditions than other peasants. They were sometimes viewed as role models for successful agricultural practices and for voicing out concerns over living and working conditions.

what is collectivisation

 bringing a number of small farm units together to form bigger farms.

Peasants collaborate to produce as much food to feed themselves + urban proletariat

Based on belief that shortages were due to hoarding to then sell at high prices.

how many farmers worked on collectives before Stalin became leader

only 3%

what prompted Stalin to push for mass collectivisation and to create socialism in the countryside?

The need to increase agricultural production and improve food security, alongside ideological goals of consolidating power and transitioning to a socialist economy.

Famine of 1927–28

what did Stalin have to do to push for mass collectivisation and to create socialism in the countryside?

He implemented aggressive policies to consolidate individual farms into collective farms, forced peasants to join these collectives, and used state resources to manage agricultural production.

• Get rid of NEP

• Eradicate kulaks

• Marginalise those who supported a commercially based agricultural policy.

First 5 Year Plan start and end date?

1928 October to 1929

Stats for the First Five Year Plan?

• Coal and iron output doubled

• Very little growth in consumer goods

• Grain production up from 73.3mil tonnes 91928) → 75mil tonnes (1935) but

• Cattle production down from 70.5mil tonnes to 46

Third 5 Year Plan start and end date?

1938—1941, aimed at preparing the Soviet Union for potential war.

Stats for Third 5 Year Plan?

• Increase in industrial output

• Areas like iron and steel stopped growing

• Defence and armaments grew rapidly

when was the virgin land scheme?

1954

aim of the virgin land scheme?

To increase agricultural production by cultivating previously unused land.

land stats for 1954 Virgin Land Scheme?

• 1950: 96 million acres of land given to production of wheat

• 1964: this increased to 165 million acres

how did the Virgin Land Scheme fail?

• But approach to using soil was flawed

• Land was overused with no crop rotation → reduced soil fertility

• Little done to counter soil erosion — soils close to the Central Asian desert (wind storms)

• Khrushchev wanted to implement his policies quickly and so cut corners.

• Productivity and production lowered in the long-term.

• Disastrous harvest of 1963: grain production fell from 140 million tonnes to 107 million tonnes.

• May have been the main reason for Khrushchev’s downfall.

how much did investment in agriculture increase between 1953—58?

250%

when was Reutern appointed? what for?

1862 — under Alexander II as Minister of Finance

what did Reutern focus on?

Investment in railways and industry and employment of foreign investment capital to modernise Russian economy.

What industries did Return modernise?

modernisation occurred in iron, coal, textiles and oil.

what was the period for Reutern’s reforms?

1862—78

stats for Reutern’s reforms

• x7 fold increase in amount of railway tracks (2194 miles in 1862 to 13,979 miles in 1878) 

• Important in giving boost to industrial sector as industrial output doubled with 6% annual growth (1862-78)

• Secured foreign investment through schemes (govt bonds, tax exemptions, monopoly concessions) – used to protect railway projects from failure. 

• Due to high costs, 94% of railway lines were in private hands by 1880.

who was the finance minister under Alexander III? his aim?

Bunge— moved towards greater state ownership of the railways

• 69% of railway system under public control by 1911

who was finance minister under Nicholas II?

Witte—focused on rapid industrialisation and expansion of the railway network.

What did Sergei Witte do?

• Took out foreign loans, raised taxes and interest rates to boost capital for investment in industry

• Encouraged foreign expertise to come to Russia

• 1897: placement of rouble on the gold standard (to give investors confidence in roubles’s value)

• Insisted that most investment go into heavy industry and railways as that’s what the west did for economic powers

stats for Sergei Witte’s reforms?

• x2 Coal production + x7 iron and steel

• Railway track rose from 17,264 miles in 1891 to 31,125 miles in 1901– due to investment from capital–  which increased by avg 120% yearly (1893–1898)

• Income from industry shot up from 42 million roubles in 1893 → 161 million roubles by 1897

• Annual average increase in industrial production of 7.5%

why was Sergei Witte criticised?

• Engineering and textiles ignored

• Reliance on loans criticised as they could be called back on short-notice

• Railways system, despite expansion, was costly and not as impressive as the west

• Agriculture ignored.

stats for Witte and Stolypin post 1905?

• Witte focused on industrial growth, while Stolypin emphasised agricultural reforms.

• double coal output (witte)

• 1909–13: industrial output increased 7% annually 

• 1909–1: GNP increased by 3.5% annually

• But, by 1913, the overall production levels were still behind the West.

• Russian coal production in 1914 was 10% of Britain’s.

• Production had increased, but not productivity.

• Vast labour employed to compensate lack of tech

• Since the Russian economy fell apart in WWI– maybe Witte’s reforms only had a positive ST impact.

How was Russia’s economy failing in WWI? (equipment, demand, railway, money, food)

• Not enough to pay for equipment for war

• Industry struggled to meet demands of armed forces

• Railway system was inefficient

• More money borrowed from abroad + higher taxes + gold standard abandoned = inflation

• Price of food and fuel x4 (1914–16)

when was the SEC (Supreme Economic Council) formed?

December 1917— to manage nationalised key industries.

stats for fall in industrial outputs in industrial sectors during the civil war?

• Production of coal fell from 29 million tonnes (1913) to 8.9 million tonnes (1921)

• food and other resources were directed towards the military first.

how was the inflation and currency during the civil war?

• Inflation: rouble in October 1920 was worth 1% of its value from 1917 → currency was abandoned and workers were paid “in kind” by 1921

What did the NEP do?

1921 NEP

• De-nationalisation of small-scale enterprises – allowed small shops to produce consumer goods (clothes, shoes)

• Rejuvenation of trade through removal of restrictions on private goods and services. Shops flourished, rationing was ended and a revalued rouble was introduced.

what happened as a result of the NEP (economically)?

The NEP led to economic stabilisation, increased agricultural production, and a revival of small businesses, contributing to improved living standards and a partial recovery of the economy.

• Industrial output increased – reflected in food and consumer goods found in the market

• Emergence of Nepmen– responsible for 60% of retail trade

• ‘Scissors crisis’ – food supply exceeded demand which led to low prices and in comparison, supply of manufactured goods was below demand so prices were high.

• Feeling its long term effects, Stalin abandoned the NEP in 1928.

how did Stalin believe Russia could become self-sustaining?

Believed that the only way for Russia to become self-sustaining was by abandoning the NEP and replacing it with a policy revolving around state control and centralised planning. Thus, industrialisation would be stimulated by setting production targets (in the 5 Year Plans) and collectivisation of agriculture, which aimed to consolidate individual landholdings into large, state-controlled farms.

how was the 7th 5 year plan a success?

The 7th Five Year Plan, initiated in 1959, aimed to accelerate industrial growth and improve the standard of living, leading to significant advancements in technology, housing, and consumer goods production, enhancing the overall economy. This plan successfully increased production outputs across various sectors, implemented new technologies (MTS), and improved living conditions for many citizens.

stats for the success of the 7th 5 year plan (tractors, coal)?

• Tractors up from 315,000 in 1955 to 804,000 in 1965

• Coal up from 310mil tonnes in 1955 to 578mil tonnes in 1965

who was finance minister in 1877—92?

Ivan Vyshnegradsky

what did Vyshnegradsky do?

• Gained income by exporting large amounts of grain even when there was prospect of famine and food shortage.

• 1891 famine: partly seen as the fault of his policies.

why was the 1981 famine seen as Vyshnegradsky’s fault?

The 1981 famine was attributed to Vyshnegradsky's policies, as his focus on grain exports over domestic food supply exacerbated the food crisis, leading to widespread starvation.

What did war communism involve in terms of nationalisation?

Nationalisation (state control) of larger enterprises and a state monopoly of markets for goods and services. → caused unrest as individuals lost freedom to produce and sell goods at their convenience.

What did war communism involve in terms of militarisation of labour?

Militarisation of labour → people worked solely to meet needs of war and were ordered for jobs by the state

What did war communism involve in terms of forced requisitioning?

Forced requisitioning of agricultural produce. → surplus food was taken and given to army and urban workers → led to starvation in rural areas + disincentive to grow more than necessary.

peasant violence incidences compared to 1850—54 and 1854—58?

• 1850–54: 141 peasant violence

• 1854–58: 245 peasant violence

how many religious figures killed from 1918—24?

c. 1200

when was the decree on land

November 1917

what happened to kulaks?

• ‘Fortunate’ ones were given very poor quality land with unrealistic food production → failed to meet, sent to Siberia.

• Standard kulaks were robbed and sent to concentration camps (where they died)

• Sub-kulaks opposed collectivisation and were either shot or sent to concentration camps.

how many kulaks were deported?

1928–30: 1–3 million kulak families were deported + 30,000 kulaks were shot.

what was the process of the ‘voluntary’ collectivisation?

Collectivisation was explained to villagers → poor peasants and Komsomols denounced wealthy peasants as kulaks → created fear → encouraged them to sign up to the collective programme → resulted in Kolkhozy or Sovkhozy.

how many households were collectivised by march 1930?

Around 60% of households were collectivised.

what happened during the renewed collectivisation?

Renewed collectivisation in the late 1930s saw increased repression, forced consolidation of farms, and widespread famine, furthering state control over agriculture.

• 50% of all peasants were brought back to the Kholkhozy.

• By the end of 1937, it was 93%.

• Peasants were now allowed to keep small plots of land

• MTS introduced

when were peasants allowed to leave collective farms?

Peasants were allowed to leave collective farms in 1935.

how many households worked on collectives by 1941?

98%

why were collectives still disliked in 1941?

• Abolition of mir in 1930 → blow to village autonomy

• Collectives deprived peasants of extra income + restrictions on crop grown

• The 1932–34 famine was believed to be man-made due to grain requisitioning.

compare number of Russian Orthodox churches in 1930 to 1931?

1930: 224 Russian Orthodox Churches → 1931: 16 remaining (down by 60% since 1912)

how did Khrushchev provide peasants with incentives to farm?

• Raising prices for state procurements

• Reducing foods to be procured

• Reduce taxes on peasants

what consumer goods also show that the 7th 5YP was a success?

By 1958: 50% of Soviet households had a TV and washing machine

church numbers from 1960 to 1964

Church numbers fell from 20,000 in 1960 to 8000 in 1964

worker strikes between 1905—1910?

1905–10: strikes decline from 11,000 to 222 (maybe due to Nicholas’s response to the revolution such as October Manifesto)

worker strikes between 1910—12?

strikes increased from 222 in 1910 to 1,100 in 1912, reflecting growing discontent among workers despite government attempts to suppress unrest.

strikes increased after trade unions were legalised

what and when was the Decree on Workers’ Control?

• (nov 1918): workers’ committees ran factories rather managers

MTS growth from 1928 to 1957?

The MTS, or Machine Tractor Stations, expanded significantly during this period, providing agricultural machinery and expertise to collective farms, leading to increased agricultural productivity. 2500 in 1928 to 8000 in 1957

how did collectivisation affect Kazakhstan?

(Kazakhstan) collectivisation destroyed their nomadic lifestyle → so they moved out of there to China → population fell by 75% within some years.

Emancipation edict — marriage

Peasants could marry anyone they wanted

how many schools were there before 1864?

In 1880, there were only 23,000 primary schools in Russia.

how much of the army was literate by the mid-1860s?

By the mid-1860s, only 7% of army recruits (mainly peasants) were literate.

who was responsible for administration of education under Alexander II?

Responsibility for the administration and expansion of elementary schools placed with school boards → which were run by zemstvo

impact of the Zemstvo being in charge of education

• Immediate impact: quantity, quality and variety of schools increased

• Drawback: the boards were dominated by the clergy, nobility and government officials → concern over the kind of education that would be provided + how accessible it would be to the poor.

what did Tolstoy do in 1870 (regarding Zemstvo and education)?

• In 1870, Tolstoy (minister of education) took some of the zemstva authority.

• By 1877, the ministry had almost total control over what the zemstva could do.

• The central government authority had control over the appointment of teacher, school day length.

result of the ‘new code’ for secondary schools that Alexander II introduced?

• 1855–1865: Number of pupils attending secondary schools doubled.

• But Tolstoy manipulated the curriculum to prevent their progression to tertiary education.

what did the education statute passed in 1863 state?

1863: a statute reinstated a large degree of autonomy to universities. But despite this, the Ministry of Education had the final say on what and how it was taught.

why was the nobility in decline by 1914?

The nobility was in decline due to their extravagant spending. They mortgaged property to pay off debts and when repayments became difficult, many sold huge chunks of land to peasants.

how much land did the gentry own by mid-1870s and by 1914?

By mid-1870s, the gentry owned ~200 million acres but this fell to 140mil acres, with over 90% bought by peasants.

how many primary schools were there in 1896?

By 1896, there were 79,000 primary schools, which aimed to increase literacy and access to education.

when did stolypin make all non-academic meetings at university illegal?

Stolypin made all non-academic meetings at university illegal in 1908 as part of his efforts to suppress revolutionary activity among students.

what did Lenin replace bourgeois gymnasia with?

Lenin replaced bourgeois gymnasia with polytechnic schools that focused on practical education and vocational training, promoting a more socialist approach to education.

up until what age did the bolsheviks make education compulsory and when?

1919: Bolsheviks made education compulsory up to age 17

Stalin’s incentive to strengthen family unit?

1944: Distinction to Mother Heroines: money reward to mothers with 10+ children

attendance of primary schools by 1929 and 1930?

By 1929, primary school attendance in Russia increased significantly, with the majority of children enrolled due to the efforts of the Bolshevik education reforms.

1929: 8 million pupils were attending primary schools

1930: 18 million pupils were attending primary schools

number of students attending secondary school by 1931 and 1932?

Placed more emphasis on the development of vocational education, especially during the 5YP.

• 1931: 2.5 million pupils were attending secondary schools

• 1932: 6.9 million pupils were attending secondary schools

when was abortion legalised?

Abortion was legalized in Russia in 1920, becoming one of the first countries to do so.

when were school fees abolished?

1956

number of churches in 1938 compared to 1930?

• By 1938, there were only 16 orthodox churches compared to 224 in 1930 

• Clergy reduced by 60%

1958 anti-religious campaign?

A government initiative aimed at suppressing religious practices and promoting atheism in Soviet society.

1958: official anti-religious campaign scrutinising any religious activity unless it was at an official place