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Ad hominem argument
An argument attacking and individual’s character rather than his or her position on an issue; literally means “against the man.”
E.g. “After a presentation, an audience member says to another: “I don’t believe a word. I think it’s all made-up. He has been cheating on his partner and lying about it for years." Whether the professor cheated on their partner has no bearing on their ability as a researcher.
Allusion
A reference to something literary, mythological, or historical that the author assumes the reader will recognize.
E.g. "Ugh, I’m exhausted. I wish I could just click my heels and be home.”
Analogy
A comparison of two different things that are similar in some way.
E.g. “That’s like looking for a needle in a haystack.”
Anaphora
Repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses.
(Example from the great Richard D. Bury: “In books I find the dead as if they were alive; in books I foresee things to come; in books warlike affairs are set forth; from books come forth the laws of peace.”)
Anecdote
A brief narrative that focuses on a particular incident or event.
E.g. “Well when I was in high school, we didn’t even have phones. We had to just go to our friend’s house and hope they were home!”
Antecedent
The word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers.
Antithesis
A statement in which two opposing ideas are balanced.
E.g. “Prepare for the worst, but hope for the best!”
Aphorism
A concise, statement that expresses succinctly a general truth or idea, often using rhyme or balance.
E.g. “An apple a day keeps the doctor away!”
Asyndeton
A construction in which elements are presented in a series without conjunctions.
E.g. “They spent the day wondering, searching, thinking, understanding.”
Balanced Sentence
A sentence in which words, phrases, or clauses are set off against each other to emphasize a contrast.
E.g. George Orwell: “If thought corrupts language, language can also corrupt thought.”
Chiasmus
A statement consisting of two parallel parts in which the second part is structurally reversed.
E.g. “His time a moment, and a point his space” - Alexander Pope “Essay on Man”
Cliche
An expression that has been overused to the extent that its freshness has worn off.
E.g. “the time of my life”, “at the drop of a hat”, etc.
Climax
Generally, the arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of increasing importance, often in parallel structure.
E.g. “The concerto was applauded at the house of Baron von Schnooty, it was praised highly at court, it was voted best concerto of the year by the Academy, it was considered by Mozart the highlight of his career, and it has become known today as the best concerto in the world.”
Colloquialism
Informal words or expressions not usually acceptable in formal writing.
E.g. “That’s a real hard pill to swallow, I tell ya.”
Complex sentence
A sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
E.g. “Because she overslept, she was late for the party.”
Compound sentence
A sentence with two or more coordinate independent clauses, often joined by one or more conjunctions.
E.g. “I'll spend the summer doing house projects, or I'll spend all day reading books.”
Compound-complex sentence
A sentence with two or more principal clauses and one or more subordinate clauses.
E.g. “Though I enjoy classic literature, I also read a lot of fantasy, and I like it a lot.”
Concrete Details
Details that relate to or describe actual, specific things or events.
E.g. “The summer was hot; over 100 degrees every day, and the dry air made the dust blow around into our eyes and noses as we walked down the burning asphalt.”
Connotation
The implied or associative meaning of a word.
E.g. (slender vs. skinny; cheap vs. thrifty)
Cumulative sentence
A sentence in which the main independent clause is elaborated by the successive addition of modifying clauses or phrases.
E.g. (Jonathan Swift, A Modest Proposal: “I have been assured by a very knowing American friend of my acquaintance in London, that a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing, and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee or a ragout.”)
Declarative sentence
A sentence that makes a statement or declaration.
E.g. “I declare bankruptcy!” “I’m going home.”
Deductive reasoning
Reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case.
E.g. “The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.”
Denotation
The literal meaning of a word.
E.g. “A "house" is the building one resides in, while "home" is where the heart is.
Dialect
A variety of speech characterized by its own particular grammar or pronunciation, often associated with a particular geographical region.
E.g. “Y’all” = Southern talk
Diction
The word choices made by a writer.
Can be described as formal, semi-formal, ornate, informal, technical, etc.
Didactic
Having the primary purpose of teaching or instructing.
Ellipsis
The omission of a word or phrase which is grammatically necessary but can be deduced from the context.
E.g. “Some people prefer cats; others, dogs.” The word being omitted here is "people.”
Epigram
A brief, pithy, and often paradoxical saying.
E.g. "There is only one thing in the world worse than being talked about, and that is not being talked about." – Oscar Wilde
Ethos
The persuasive appeal of one’s character, or credibility.
E.g. “I trust my doctor because she has been doing her work for 25 years and has a lot of experience.”
Euphemism
An indirect, less offensive way of saying something that is considered unpleasant.
E.g. “We're going to be downsizing operations, which means we'll be reducing our workforce. That means we'll need to lay off some people." vs "We are closing a store and don't need as many workers, so we will be firing people.”
Exclamatory sentence
A sentence expressing strong feeling, usually punctuated with an exclamation mark.
E.g. “I've never been more excited in my entire life!”
Figurative language
Language employing one or more figures of speech (simile, metaphor, imagery, etc.).
E.g. “What light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun.”
Hyperbole
Intentional exaggeration to create an effect.
E.g. “I am so tired I could sleep for the rest of my life.”
Idiom
An expression in a given language that cannot be understood from the literal meaning of the words in the expression; or, a regional speech or dialect.
E.g. “fly on the wall,” “cut to the chase,” etc.
Imagery
The use of language to create vivid images that appeal to one of the senses.
E.g. “The garden was lush; fully of colorful blooming flowers that looked like a tropical coral reef.”
Imperative sentence
A sentence that gives a command.
E.g. “Go clean your room then do the dishes.”
Implication
A suggestion an author or speaker makes without stating it directly.
E.g. “It would be awful if anything happened to your pumpkins if you leave them out…”
Inductive reasoning
Deriving general principles from particular facts or instances.
E.g. “All mammals breathe air. Dolphins breath air, so they are mammals.”
Inference
A conclusion based on premises or evidence.
E.g. “So you're telling me that if I leave my pumpkins out, you are going to smash them.”
Interrogative sentence
A sentence that asks a question.
E.g. “Are you going to work this weekend?”
Invective
An intensely vehement, highly emotional verbal attack.
E.g. “You are the most disgusting, morally bankrupt, rude, loud, and awful person I have ever met!”
Inverted syntax
A sentence constructed so that the predicate comes before the subject.
E.g. “In the woods I am walking.”
Irony
The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning; or, incongruity between what is expected and what actually occurs (situational, verbal, dramatic).
Jargon
The specialized language or vocabulary of a particular group or profession.
E.g. “The only new principle involved is that instead of power being generated by the relative motion of conductors and fluxes, it's produced by the modial interaction of magneto reluctance and capacitive directance”
Juxtaposition
Placing two elements side by side to present a comparison or contrast.
E.g. “His moods were like night and day.”
Litote
A type of understatement in which an idea is expressed by negating its opposite.
E.g. describing a particularly horrific scene by saying, “It was not a pretty picture.”
Logos
Appeal to reason or logic.
E.g. “I believe him. His evidence makes his conclusion pretty obvious.”
Malapropism
The mistaken substitution of one word for another word that sounds similar.
E.g. “The doctor wrote me a subscription.”
Maxim
A concise statement, often offering advice; an adage.
E.g. “They rob from the rich to give to the poor.”
Metaphor
A direct comparison of two different things.
E.g. “He's a tank; you should see him play football.”
Metonymy
Substituting the name of one object for another object closely associated with it.
E.g. "There is supposed to be a decision from The White House soon;" where "The White House" is a substitution for "President."
Mood
The emotional atmosphere of a work that a reader experiences.
E.g. "It was a dark and stormy night..." might make a reader feel anticipation or nervousness.
Motif
A standard theme, element, or dramatic situation that recurs in various works.
E.g. Repeating imagery of night and day
Non sequitur
An inference that does not follow logically from the premises.
The literal translation is "does not follow”
Paradox
An apparently contradictory statement that actually contains some truth.
E.g. "The more I learn, the more I realize I don't know." - Albert Einstein
Parallelism
The use of corresponding grammatical or syntactical forms.
E.g. “I like reading, sleeping, and baking"
Parody
A humorous imitation of a serious work.
Parenthetical
A comment that interrupts the immediate subject, often to qualify or explain.
E.g. “Yesterday I was at a wedding (technically just the reception; the couple was privately married an hour before then met the rest of us at the party), and I got to see people I haven't seen in years!”
Pathos
The quality in a work that prompts the reader to feel emotional as a way to persuade them to a specific side or belief.
E.g. When a commercial for an animal rescue shows you lots of sad animals and tells you that you can save them for just a dollar a day.
Pedantic
Characterized by an excessive display of learning or scholarship.
Personification
Endowing non-human objects or creatures with human qualities or characteristics.
E.g. “The wind whispered through the trees," "The sun smiled upon us all day.”
Philippic
A strong verbal denunciation.
E.g. "And you know those shoes were brand new and I hadn't even worn them yet! After the last time you ruined what you borrowed from me, I can't believe you would think it is okay to just take something that doesn't belong to you. You have no respect for my personal items, and I'm sick of it!”
Polysyndeton
The use, for rhetorical effect, of more conjunctions than is necessary or natural.
E.g. John Henry Newman: “And to set forth the right standard, and to train according to it, and to help forward all students towards it according to their various capacities, this I conceive to be the business of a University.”
Premise
A previous statement or proposition from which another is inferred or follows as a conclusion.
E.g. "1: All mammals breathe air. 2: Dolphins breath air. Conclusion: Dolphins are mammals.”
Rhetoric
The art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, especially the use of figures of speech and other compositional techniques.
E.g. In the speech where Susan B. Anthony's is advocating for women to have the right to vote, she said, "It was we, the people; not we, the white male citizens; nor yet we, the male citizens; but we, the whole people, who formed the Union. And we formed it, not to give the blessings of liberty, but to secure them; not to the half of ourselves and the half of our posterity, but to the whole people - women as well as men.”
Rhetorical question
A question asked merely for rhetorical effect and not requiring an answer.
E.g. “Do you really think it's okay to call people names?" Here, the question is serving as the statement "It is not okay to call people names.”
Rhetorical devices
Literary techniques used to heighten the effectiveness of expression.
Sarcasm
Harsh, cutting language or tone intended to ridicule.
E.g. “Oh, no, I think it's super cool that you use all of the gas in my car without filling it back up or even asking me if you could do it.”
Satire
The use of humor to emphasize human weaknesses or imperfections in social institutions.
Scheme
An artful deviation from the ordinary arrangement of words.
E.g. Any figure of speech that deals with the order of words/letters, syntax, sound instead of word meaning
Simile
A comparison of two things using “like,” “as,” or other specifically comparative words.
E.g. “Her hair was as gold as the sun." "He was like a bull in a china shop; always breaking things.”
Simple sentence
A sentence consisting of one independent clause and no dependent clause.
E.g. “They were going to school.”
Solecism
Non standard grammatical usage; a violation of prescriptive grammatical rules.
E.g. “They was going to school that day.”
Structure
The arrangement or framework of a sentence, paragraph, or entire work.
Style
The choices a writer makes; the combination of distinctive features of a literary work.
Syllepsis
A figure of speech in which a word (usually a verb) is meant to be understood differently in relation to two or more words.
Syllogism
A three-part deductive argument in which a conclusion is based on a major premise and a minor premise.
E.g. “All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal.”
Synechdoche
Using one part of an object to represent the entire object.
E.g. “Hey Giles! Sharp wheels." "The rest of the car's nice too.”
Synesthesia
Describing one kind of sensation in terms of another.
E.g. “Well that color sure is...loud!" "I love the sweet sound of a baby laughing.”
Syntax
The manner in which words are arranged into sentences.
Theme
A central idea of a work.
Thesis
The primary position taken by a writer or speaker.
Tone
The attitude of a writer, usually implied, toward the subject or audience.
E.g. The first one says "Hey, just wanted to know what time you'll be home?" and the second says "Get home. Now.”
Trope
An artful deviation from the ordinary or principal signification of a word.
E.g. hyperbole, metaphor, and personification
Understatement
The deliberate representation of something as lesser in magnitude than it.
E.g. “Well that wasn't fun.”
Vernacular
The everyday speech of a particular country or region, often involving nonstandard usage.
Note
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