South and North American Civilizations

Mayan, Aztec, Inca, Mississippians, Chaco Culture, and Mesa Verde.

Mayans started as

hunter gatherers

Mayan got introduced to corn which …

led to permanent settlements that grew to be city-states

Period that Mayans reached their height

The Classic Maya Period (250-950 AD)

Geographic region that Mayans formed around

Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula south into Honduras

Mayan advancements

math, astronomy, architecture, visual arts, calendar system, and written language in form of glyphs that made books/codices

Mayan government

decentralized with 40 city-states; larger dominated smaller ones

Mayan social classes

city states had a King or High lord (related to gods), nobles (warriors, scribes, scholars, priests), commoners (majority; farmers, traders, craftsmen, hunters; built royal palaces, tombs, central plazas with step temple pyramids, or terraces for agriculture )

Farming type that Mayans relied on

slash and burn agriculture, with some advances in terraces and irrigation

Items used in currency for Mayan trade

greenstone beads, cacao beans, and copper bells

Mayan kings enhanced prestige and power by

dispensing of resources to those inside and outside the city state

Importance of astronomy to Mayans

tied into religion, planning ceremonies, trade, and warfare

Important Mayan god

Itzamnaaj, the god of life and death, day and night, and sky and earth

Mayan human sacrifice

only on special occasions like king’s inauguration, sanctify a ceremony or dedication of a ball court

What god was honored when sacrificial victims were painted blue and thrown into a well

prisoners of war or players in the Maya ball game (winners or losers) were offered to Chaak, god of rain

Major mathematical concept Mayans developed

concept of zero

Three Mayan calendars

365-day civil calendar (Earth), 260-day sacred calendar (Venus), Long Count calendar (2,880,000 days)

Factors in Mayan decline

environmental changes (drought due to deforestation), resource shortages, cite-state conflicts, and loss of faith in rulers

Chichen Itza

city-state that did survive because of extensive changes in government structure that emphasized more communal leadership than kings

What devastated the Post-Classical Maya

arrival of the Spanish conquistadors and the spread of disease
Natural feature central to the Basin of Mexico

Natural feature central to the Basin of Mexico

Lake Texcoco

Omen that led the Mexica to build Tenochtitlan

An eagle eating a snake perched on a cactus

Farming method the Aztecs use to expand agriculture

Chinampas (artificial islands)

Capital of the Aztec Empire

Tenochtitlan

Alliance that defeated the Tepanec in 1428

Texcoco, Tenochtitlan, and Tlacopan (Triple Alliance)

Title given to the supreme ruler of the Aztecs

Huey Tlatoani (“High King”)

Why did the Aztecs expand their empire between 1430-1515

To gain tribute, captives for sacrifice, plunder, and buffer zones

Main Aztec social classes

High King, Council of Nobles → Local rulers, nobles, commoners (soldiers, scribes, peasants, scholars, healers, craftsmen, artisans, merchant), serfs, and slaves

Role of women in Aztec society

they wove cloth for tribute, could sometimes be healers, merchants, or scribes if noble

Main economic hub of the Aztec Empire

Tenochtitlan

Goods traded in Aztec markets

gold, greenstone, turquoise, cotton, cacao beans, tobacco, pottery, tools, weapons, foodstuffs, and slaves

Infrastructure that supported trade and farming in Tenochtitlan

city-wide canals and an advanced water management system

Most important Aztec religious site

Temple Mayor in Tenochtitlan, Tenochtitlan was centered on this and not a palace, worshipped Huitzilopochtli (sun & war) and Tlaloc (rain)

Why was human sacrifice central to Aztec religion?

To nourish the sun god and ensure cosmic order

Calendars Aztecs used

One solar calendar (365 days) and one ritual calendar (260 days)

Ruler of the Aztec Empire at its height (1500–1515)

Motecuhzoma II (Montezuma)

How was Motecuhzoma II chosen as emperor

Elected by nobles and high priests, considered a God among his people 

Changes Montezuma II made to society

Increased his power and widened the gap between nobles and commoners; caused hostility which led to a rebellion (crushed in 1515)

Four wars of expansion

brought vast plunder and tribute, done to appease those who elected him (nobles), aroused the hostility of their major rivals - Tarascans (West) and the Tlaxcalans (East)

Leader of the Spanish expedition to Mexico in 1519

Hernán Cortés appointed by Cuban governor Diego Velasquez

Cortés’ key Indigenous ally and translator

Malinche who was given to Cortes as a gift 

Which Indigenous group allied with Cortés against the Aztecs?

The Tlaxcalans because wanted revenge after Aztecs’ posed high taxes as a punishment once they won the war; alliance sealed via marriage 

What gave the Spanish military an advantage over the Aztecs?

Steel weapons, horses, firearms, and artillery

What prophecy influenced Montezuma’s reception of Cortés?

The return of Quetzalcoatl (the feathered serpent god)

How did Cortés initially secure control in Tenochtitlan?

By capturing Montezuma II and Aztec nobles

What event marked the Spanish being driven from Tenochtitlan in 1520?

La Noche Triste (“Night of Sorrows”); Alvarado interferes in religious ceremony while Cortes is away, causing a major conflict and the appointment of a new emperor, Cuitlahuac

What epidemic devastated the Aztec population before the final siege?

over the 9 months that Cortes regrouped, smallpox killed thousands, including new leader 

When did Tenochtitlan fall to the Spanish?

August 13, 1521

What three factors explain the Spanish victory over the Aztecs?

Spanish steel, smallpox epidemic, and Indigenous allies

What rewards did Cortés receive after conquest?

22 land grants (encomiendas) and 23,000 Indigenous slaves

What impact did the conquest of the Aztecs have on Spain?

Massive wealth, expansion of empire, and a wave of further exploration by conquistadors

Origins of the Inca Empire

1438–1533, centered on the Cuzco Valley, founded by Manco Capac; rulers claimed divine migration led by gods that legitimized their authority

Inca Pilgrimage Trail

Roads through valleys, highlands, and mountains cultivated by emperors to reinforce universal creation and unique Inca migration; end of trail laid previous king and queens’ mummies

Early Andean and Amazonian Civilization of Inca

Began ~15,000 years ago with hunter-gatherers on the Pacific coast; developed fishing villages, domestication, agriculture, and monumental architecture (~3500 BCE).

Inca Highland Innovations

Terracing and irrigation allowed farming in the Andes; led to urban centers that extended their reach through colonizing activities to create trade networks tied to agricultural production

Cuzco grew with

irrigation and terracing by 1000 CE and rule expanded beyond the valley

Inca Succession

Not strict primogeniture; emperors chose their most capable son (sometimes among 60 claimants); rulers often brother-sister/Coya pairs for blood purity.

Role of the Inca Emperor

Military commander, religious leader, and central figure in public ceremonies.

"Land of the Four Quarters"

Inca name for their empire; corresponded to the four asymmetrical sectors connected to Cuzco by four highways and reflected the cosmos

Pachakuti’s change to the Inca Labor System

All land belonged to the state; peasants were periodically employed by the state and their labor was used to build (pyramids, terraces, roads), manufacture, craft, farm, and/or fight for the “government” in return for state support.

Inca Economy

Similar to socialism, no currency or markets; goods stored in warehouses, redistributed in times of need or trade; wealth embodied in the Inca himself.

Inca Population Resettlement

Conquered groups were relocated, forced to adopt Inca customs, language (Ruma Suni), and avoid local traditions.

Inca Road System

Stretched ~25,000 miles; built and maintained by peasant labor, allowed movement of goods, armies, and administrators.

Inca Bureaucracy

Centralized, run by relatives and officials; records kept with khipu (knotted cords) since no written language.

Inca Colonization Policy

Established settlements up-slope or down-slope to secure resources; warehouses distributed surpluses to deficient areas; symbiotic relationship

Role of Inca Women

Elite women cemented alliances by marriage; Cuzco women/of the royal house became wives of provincial elites, provincial women became consorts of the Inca.

Aqllawasi (“House of the Chosen”)

Cloisters where women trained in weaving, brewing, and rituals; supported military campaigns and religious festivals.

Inca Female Religious Authority

Priestesses unified religion and politics; sometimes served as official representatives of the Inca in provinces.

Impact of Disease on Inca

Killed thousands in Cuzco, including nobles and royals; destabilized the empire before Spanish arrival.

Huayna Capac

Emperor whose campaigns kept him away from Cuzco; died of disease (likely smallpox) between 1525–1530; suffering from delirium, Huayna Capac selected heir to be his one-month-old son, then Atahualpa (with army at frontier), and then to a different son, Huascar (in Cuzco).

Inca Civil War

Huascar confiscated sacred lands, angered nobles, and was unpopular; Atahualpa built legitimacy through military victories.

Outcome of Inca Civil War

Atahualpa defeated Huascar, captured him, and moved forces toward Cuzco; declared Quito new capital, breaking tradition.

Arrival of the Spanish to Inca

Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro arrived in 1530 with 180 men, 37 horses, dogs, and artillery; empire was weakened by civil war.

Cajamarca Ambush (1532)

Atahualpa met Pizarro with an unarmed ceremonial guard under the impression the Spanish wanted to be his ally; Spaniards ambushed, killing ~7,000 Incas and capturing Atahualpa without losing a man.

Atahualpa’s Ransom

Promised a room filled with gold and double with silver; equivalent to $300 million today, so Atahualpa was treated well

Execution of Atahualpa (1533)

Accused of plotting against Spaniards; executed by strangulation after converting to Christianity to avoid burning.

Fall of the Inca Empire

Smallpox, factionalism of Atahualpa’s sons fought over crown, and Spanish advantages (steel, horses, artillery, Indigenous allies) led to collapse by 1537.

Spanish Aftermath

Inca Empire replaced by Spanish colonial rule; wealth and resources sparked European competition over New World riches.

Mississippian Culture

900–1600; Native Americans built large mound complexes, the most famous being Cahokia near the confluence of the Missouri, Illinois, and Mississippi Rivers.

Cahokia

Largest Mississippian settlement, occupied ~5 square miles with ~15,000 people; featured over 120 mounds, canals, maize fields, and was a major trade and diplomatic center.

Monk’s Mound

Four-story earthen mound in Cahokia, larger than the Great Pyramid of Giza; symbolized civic and religious power; surrounded by 120 smaller mounds and ringed by network of irrigation and transportation canals (fed water to corn fields)

Mississippian trade

Cahokia was a thriving port; exchange of goods like copper, mother-of-pearl, buffalo, elk and fishermens’ catch

Mound Builders

Mississippian culture also called this because of their widespread construction of mound complexes across North America, beginning 5,000 years ago; ​​mounds signified a high level of public authority

Engineering/Construction at Cahokia

Mississippians used alternating layers of clay and sand to stabilize mounds and control moisture, enabling vertical construction.

Centralized Authority in Cahokia

Surpluses from maize, beans, and squash led to storage needs (granaries), supervision, and security — fostering centralized government.

Mississippian Settlements

Included farmsteads, hamlets, villages and towns; ruled by subchiefs under a more powerful regional chief.

Natchez Social Hierarchy

Divided into Suns (royal family [Great Sun, his mom/White Woman and her other kids]), Nobles (priests/sub+chiefs), Honored Peoples (merit-based), Stinkards (commoners), and Slaves (war captives).

Matrilineal Succession

In Natchez society, leadership passed through the female line (e.g., son of a sister), not from father to son; place of offspring in the social hierarchy was determined by their mother’s class.

Religion in Mississippian Society

Theocratic rule; the Great Sun held religious authority, conducted ceremonies like the Great Corn Ceremony, and oversaw the sun temple.

Cahokian Ceremonial Centers

Featured partitioned areas with adobe mounds, including the sun temple (facing east, tended by eight firekeepers) and the Great Sun’s mound.

European Contact in Cahokia

Hernando de Soto’s 1541 expedition encountered Mississippian mound towns; by La Salle’s arrival in 1673, most Mississippian culture had disappeared.

Environmental Stress at Cahokia

Leaders redirected creeks for water and logging, but floods, droughts, and deforestation undermined agriculture and authority.

Cahokia’s Decline

Flooding (destroyed harvest), drought (bc of slash and burn), earthquakes, and civil strife gradually weakened Cahokia until it was abandoned.

Impact of Disease on Cahokia

European contact introduced diseases (e.g., anthrax, tuberculosis, trichinosis via pigs); mortality rates may have reached 95%, decimating populations.

Legacy of Mississippian Culture

After decline, Mississippian identity persisted regionally; some groups assimilated into other tribes.

Chaco Culture

Pre-Columbian Native American society in the American Southwest (8th–14th centuries), flourishing 1020–1100 in Chaco Canyon.

Chaco Canyon

Center of Chaco culture; connected regional communities in the San Juan Basin by roads and trade networks.

Chaco Achievements

Known for advanced architecture, agriculture, social complexity, engineering, astronomy, and economic organization.

Great Houses

Large multi-story structures with hundreds of interlocking rooms; took decades or centuries to build; oriented to solar, lunar, or cardinal directions.

Kivas

Specially designed ceremonial and political rooms within great houses; central to religion and tied to the Kachina belief system; acted a trade center too

Astronomical Alignment in Chaco

Great houses featured sophisticated markers and alignments to track solar and lunar cycles.