Scientific Revolution Final

How can we properly understand the concept of “Scientific Revolution”?

Turning point in world history. The world views of Aristotle and Ptolemy are challenged and eventually fade away. Science is reconstructed

What factors set the context for the Scientific Revolution? In what ways did the Renaissance set the tone for the emerging Scientific Revolution?

Exploration, military revolution, printing press, recovery of ancient texts, and humanism.

How did magic and the occult sciences in the Renaissance contribute to the formation of modern science?

Magic encouraged the study of the hidden forces of nature. It fostered intellectual alternatives to Aristotle, Magic, Hermeticism, Neoplatonism, and the occult sciences provided new, non-Aristotelian ways of thinking

How did the philosophical textbooks contribute to the Scientific Revolution

The textbook was organized around particular topics, he opinions of distinguished contemporary authors were also discussed alongside the Ancients, and the new textbook format positively encouraged new approaches to whatever topics were being discussed.

What were the three most salient aspects of the Scientific Revolution?

The increased use of mathematics, the new emphasis upon observation and experience for discovering the truth, and the newly extended assumption that natural knowledge should be useful.

What is the significance of calendrical reform for Copernicus's scientific research?

The church needed more accurate astronomy, so they asked Copernicus to help. It gave Copernicus both the motivation and the justification to pursue more accurate astronomical research. This research contributed to his heliocentric theory.

What does it mean to suggest that Copernicus was the last of the ancient astronomers?

He worked as a successor to Ptolemy, not as a precursor of Kepler or Newton. His object was not to overthrow the old system of Greek astronomy, but rather to restore it to its original purity.

Did Copernicus commit to "save the phenomena and to uniform circular motion?

Yes, he did. There had to be a better way, one more consistent with uniform circular motion and ancient tradition. For Copernicus, that better way turned out to be heliocentrism or placing the sun at (or at least near) the center of the solar system and making the Earth a planet.

Did Copernicus accept the physics of Aristotelian physics and some of Aristotle's assumptions, for example, about spheres?

Yes, partially. He retained celestial spheres and natural motion but modified them mathematically to fit observations, using epicycles to “save the phenomena.”

What was Copernicus's idea of a proper astronomy"?

Astronomy should have coherent mathematics and physics that agree with each other.

What was one of the main values of Copernicus's heliocentrism?

It explained retrograde motion and simplified planetary motion into a more coherent system.

What are the "crystalline spheres in Copernicus's astronomy?

Transparent spheres carrying planets, adapted from Aristotelian cosmology to support heliocentrism.

How did Copernicus respond to the traditional objections to a moving earth?

Natural circular motion, falling bodies, retention of objects on Earth, precession of equinoxes, and epicycles and eccentrics.

Where is the position of the sun in Copernicus's astronomy?

Near the center of the system and planets revolve around it.

What did Copernicus suggest with regard to the center of the universe?

No single center, Earth is not central, planetary motions center near the Sun.

What was Copernicus's explanation for the lack of observed stellar parallax?

He assumed the stars were very far away, and hence the parallax remains too small to be observed

What was the context of Osiander's foreword?

To reduce controversy, heliocentrism was presented as a mathematical tool, not physical truth.

What are some of the key ideas that Osiander asserted in the foreword he wrote for the 1543 publication of Copernicus's De revolutionibus obrum coelestium?

Astronomy offers useful mathematical models, not physical truth; hypotheses need not be true.

Why did Copernicus's letter to the Pope make a reference to ancient mathematicians such as Pythagoreans and Hipparchus?

To show historical precedent, gain legitimacy, and avoid ridicule.

Why did Copernicus decide to dedicate his book De revolutionibus to the Pope?

To protect the work from criticism and support Church interests like calendar reform.

What was the significance of Tycho Brahe's observation of a new star (supernova) that shone for three months in 1572?

Showed the heavens change, contradicting Aristotelian perfection. The new star was not located in the atmosphere or below the Moon, but was actually far beyond the planet Saturn

What were the implications of the comet that Tycho observed in 1577?

Disproved solid celestial spheres and showed the heavens are mutable.

On what grounds did Tycho reject Copernicus's heliocentrism?

No stellar parallax, absurd star distances, Earth’s daily rotation seemed physically impossible, and religious concerns.

What were the advantages of Tycho's proposed system as an alternative to the Copernican and Ptolemaic systems?

It accounted for stations and retrogradations of the planets without using epicycles, it removed the absurdities of a moving earth, it maintained the traditional scale of the universe, it eliminated the crystalline spheres, and it was mathematically as accurate as its competitors.

What was Kepler's mystical insight about the five regular solids?

The five Platonic solids determine planetary spacing.

What are Kepler's three laws of planetary motions?

Elliptical orbits; equal areas in equal times; t^2∝r3.

What was Kepler's idea about the force of the sun in relation to the planets?

A magnetic-like force from the Sun drives planetary motion.

What were some major findings that Galieo declared in his Sidereus Nuncius?

Mountains/craters on the Moon making it imperfect, Milky Way stars, and Jupiter’s four moons (named Medicean Stars).

What was the significance of Renaissance patronage for Galileo? What were patrons trying to get out of patronage?

Provided funding, protection, status, and prestige for both Galileo and patrons.

What impact did Renaissance academies have on Galileo's career?

Institutional support and publication; loss left Galileo vulnerable.

Why were the findings of Galileo's telescopic observations controversial? What astronomical assumptions did they challenge? What were the implications of sunspots?

They challenged perfect heavens, geocentrism, and relied on a new and untrusted instrument.

Why did Galileo face the Inquisition in 1616?

He argued heliocentrism was physically true and contradicted Scripture.

Why did Pope Urban agree to Galileo's request to write the Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems?

Friendship, flattery, and belief it would appear impartial and he could control the narrative.

How did Galileo respond to objections about the movement of the earth?

Used common and relative motion: shared motion explains why objects don’t fly off Earth.  Day 2 of the Dialogue, he explained that: objects don’t fly off a spinning earth, winds don’t constantly blow from the east, etc.

What did Galileo's "Letter to Grand Duchess Christina have to say about the presumed contradiction between religious faith and reason?

Scripture and nature do not contracict. Scripture must be reinterpreted if science proves truth.

According to Galileo, what is the right approach and the starting point in discussion of physical problems"?

Start with observation and demonstration, then interpret Scripture accordingly.

What was a main accomplishment of Newton's physics that stemmed from universal gravitation and laws of motion?

Unified celestial and terrestrial physics through universal gravitation.

What was the nature of Newton' religious belief? What did he think about the doctrine of Trinity? What did he think about ancient secrets, hidden codes in nature and the Bible, and natural theology?

Religious but rejected Christian Orthodoxy and believed the trintiy was a hoax. Hidden divine knowldege passed from God to Noah and so on. Hidden codes in nature and bible. Led towards alchemy, Biblical prophecy, esoteric interpretation, and occult texts.

What was the Royal Society of London? What was its main goal?

State-supported scientific institution for science and scientists. Maintained itself through dues from its members.

How did European courts and states contribute to scientific activities?

Scientists served governments through observatories, academies, and expertise.

How many causes does Newton's Rule I attribute to natural things?

Only true and sufficient cause for natural things.

What method does Newton promote in his experimental philosophy?

Accept inductive conclusions unless contradicted by evidence.

How does Newton define "time, ""space", and "place"?

Time (duration) flows equably without relation to anything external. Space remains always similar and immovable. A place is a part of space which a body takes up and is either absolute or relative.

What are some of the key features of the methods developed during the Scientific Revolution? How were they different from those used in the earlier periods?

Mathematics, measurement, observation, and experiment.

In what ways did the Scientific Revolution replace the dominant instrumentalist approach?

Instrumentalism = models as hypotheitical tools; realism = models describe reality.

Did Copernicus approve of the instrumentalist approach to natural philosophy?

He rejected it and believed heliocentrism was physically true.

What was the difference between "experience" as understood in scholastic natural philosophy and "experiment" as became dominant in the Scientific Revolution?

Scholastic experience vs controlled, designed experiments.

What role did measurement and quantification play for the experimental method?

Mathematics helped establish new standards of evidence. Pactitioners depended on it to make their models work. Instruments reinforced the importance of precise quantification. Instruments made accurate measurement widely accessible.

What role did instruments play for the experimental method?

It expanded the practical usefulness of mathematics: navigational devices, gunnery calculators, and mathematical tables allowed non-experts (sailors, artillerymen) to apply mathematical reasoning without having to understand the underlying theory. New instruments normalized instrument-based knowledge/ Instruments helped redefine scientific authority.

What were two social motivations for the changing attitude toward natural history?

1. Practical-civic motivation: Natural history became valued for its usefulness in commerce, agriculture, medicine, and daily life, supported by wealthy patrons and the humanist emphasis on the active, pragmatic life.

2. Religious motivation: Natural history was used to display and understand God’s creation, giving the field spiritual significance and philosophical legitimacy.

Why was the microscope not used as extensively in medicine as was the telescope in astronomy?

Microscopic discoveries did not help physicians treat disease.

Why did Robert Hooke devote so much time and energy to developing instruments?

Building instruments was how Hooke understood nature and he believed that instruments provided certainty and reliability.

In what ways did chemical or alchemical tradition contribute to the development of the experimental method?

Alchemy was already experimental: repeated trials, hands-on manipulation, and close observation. Paracelsian chemistry promoted empirical practice, quantitative experiments, and helped legitimize experimentation in medicine and natural philosophy.

What was natural magic, and how did it contribute to the knowledge of natural phenomena? Why has natural magic disappeared from our (modern) conception of magic?

Natural magic helped cultivate empirical habits and a practical approach to nature. Natural magic disappeared from our conception of magic because what once counted as “natural magic” is now considered part of natural science, not magic

What was the link between magic and technology (use of machines)?

Machines producing marvelous effects were seen as exploiting hidden natural powers, called “mathematical magic” due to links between mechanics and mathematics.

How did Kepler use the magical tradition of numerology in his investigation of cosmology?

Kepler searched for divine numerical order, linking six planets to the five Platonic solids, blending mystical numerology with rigorous mathematics.

How did William Gilbert's experimental investigations support the Copernican theory of a moving earth? How did Kepler adapt and apply Gilbert's ideas about magnets?

Gilbert argued Earth is a self-moving magnet, supporting a moving Earth. Kepler adapted magnetism into a force-based explanation of planetary motion.

How did Newton's practice of alchemy influence his investigation of universal gravity?

Alchemy trained Newton to accept hidden forces acting at a distance, helping him conceptualize universal gravitation as an active, non-mechanical force.

How did the mechanical philosophy try to explain natural phenomena?

All change had to be explained through: Collisions, Impacts, Pushes and pulls. The “intermeshing” of bodies like gears or clockwork. Reducing sensory qualities (color, taste, heat, and smell) to effects of particle motion. Explaining all phenomena through particles (atoms or corpuscles). Thw world is a machine and natural philosophy is the study of it.

What is the difference between atom (atomism) and corpuscle (corpuscularism)?

Atoms are indivisible, uniform, and unchangeable and corpuscles are small in theory divisible particles with finite extension.

What was the impact of alchemy and alchemical tradition on the mechanical philosophy?

Supported corpuscular theories and experimental practice. Experiments led alchemists to deny the dominant scholastic view which insisted that the original ingredients were irrecoverably lost once a new composition was formed.

How does Descartes define matter?

Descartes's philosophy defined matter solely in terms of extension.

What is Descartes' position regarding the existence of a vacuum in nature? What does he think about the force of gravity? How does Descartes explain motion in nature?

No vacuum, explains gravity mechanically using his vortex theory,  motion can only take place when one body pushes another and argues that the total amount of motion in the universe is constant.

Why did Leibniz dismiss Newton's concept of gravity?

Gravity seemed like an occult quality and he did not lik Newtons explanation saying gravity needs to be explained in terms of forces operating upon the bodies.

Can the Galileo affair be taken as a general indicator of relations between science and religion?

No, most scientists integrated religion and science.

What was one of the main concerns of the mechanical philosophy with regard to God?

Showing how God interacted with the mechanical world. Because of its dependence on quasi-atomist concepts of matter, the mechanical philosophy was easily associated with the supposedly atheistic atomism of the Ancient Greek Epicurus.

What role God play in Desecrates theory of matter and its various interactions?

God initiates and sustains motion and laws of nature.

What is voluntarism? What is intellectualism? What is the difference?

Voluntarists: The world is contingent on God’s free will, and the world is known through experiment.

Intellectualists: God creates according to reason and knows the world through rational principles.

What was the impact of the Scientific Revolution on the ancient idea of nature as a nurturing mother?

Nature redefined from nurturing mother to machine to be controlled.

What were two different images of nature in the ancient and medieval periods? What are the two new ideas that came to dominate our thinking of nature in the modern world?

Nature as a nurturing mother: The earth was imagined as a kind, benevolent female who provided for human needs. Nature was sacred, sensitive, and alive. Nature as wild, chaotic, and disorderly: Nature was also imagined as a dangerous, unpredictable female, capable of storms, droughts, and destruction.

Mechanism: Nature came to be viewed as a machine, rational, predictable, and governed by mechanical laws. This replaced the earlier organic worldview that viewed nature as alive. Domination and mastery over nature: humans should control, exploit, and command the natural world.

How did ancient and Renaissance miners view the earth and its mineral resources?

The earth was seen as a living mother whose minerals “ripened” in her womb; mining required ritual caution and ethical restraint, though late Renaissance commercialism began reframing Earth as exploitable.

On what ideas was the Renaissance view of nature and society based?

An organic worldview: nature and society formed a living, hierarchical whole modeled on the human body, linking natural order to moral and social harmony.

How did Aristotle conceive of matter and form in terms of male and female? What did he think about male and female biological differences?

Matter was passive and female; form was active and male. Males were seen as the true cause of generation, with females viewed as deficient males.

What considerations justified the new ways of practicing natural philosophy (science) as promoted by the Royal Society of London?

Practical usefulness, Technological improvement, Improving human life and society. Experimental science helped combat atheism, Studying nature revealed God’s design.

What social and political factors shaped English experimental philosophy?

Bacon’s political vision of science serving the state, by English legal traditions that emphasized evidence, testimony, and “moral certainty,” and by the gentlemanly culture that privileged trustworthy witnesses. Public witnessing of experiments drew on courtroom practices to guarantee credibility.

In what ways William Harvey's experimental research about the role of the heart and blood in human body reflect his political concerns and political changes of his age?

Harvey believed the heart was the sovereign ruler, and the body was the kingdom. Tthe king was seen as the natural and absolute center of the political body. When absolutism ended, Harvey said the heart serves the blood and the king serves the people.

What new technologies served as ideological metaphor for cosmology and society? How were they employed as metaphors?

Clockwork universe, God as clockmaker, domination of nature imagery.