Fallacies

**Ad Hominem**

Attacking the opponent's character or personal traits in an attempt to undermine their argument

Anecdotal

Using personal experience or an isolated example instead of a valid argument, especially to dismiss statistics

Appeal to Authority

Using the opinion or position of an authority figure, or institution of authority, in place of an actual argument

Appeal to Emotion

Manipulating an emotional response in place of a valid or compelling argument

Appeal to Nature

Making the argument that because something is ‘natural’ it is therefore valid, justified, inevitable, good, or ideal

Bandwagon

Appealing to popularity or the fact that many people do something as an attempted form of validation

Begging the Question

When a premise in an argument assumes the conclusion to be correct

Black-or-White

Where two alternative states are presented as the only possibilities, when in fact more possibilities exist

Middle Ground

Saying that a compromise, or middle point, between two extremes is the truth

Composition/Division

Assuming that what’s true about one part of something has to be applied to all, or other, parts of it

False Cause

Presuming that a real or perceived relationship between things means that one is the cause of the other

The Fallacy Fallacy

Presuming that because a claim has been poorly argued, or a fallacy has been made, that it is necessarily wrong

The Gambler’s Fallacy

Believing that ‘runs’ occur to statistically independent phenomena such as roulette wheel spins

Hasty Generalization

Each instance of a small sample of thing A has the property X; therefore, all instances of A have the property X

No True Scotsman

Making what could be called an appeal to purity as a way to dismiss relevant criticisms or flaws of an argument

Personal Incredulity

Saying that because one finds something difficult to understand that it’s therefore not true

Slipper Slope

Asserting that if we allow A to happen, then Z will consequently happen too, therefore A should not happen

Special Pleading

Moving the goalposts to create exceptions when a claim is shown to be false

Strawman

Misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack

The Texas Sharpshooter

Cherry-picking data clusters to suit an argument, or finding a pattern to fit a presumption

Tu Quoqe

Avoiding having to engage with criticism by turning it back on the accuser - answering criticism with criticism