Cell injury, adaptations, and maladaptive changed

🧠 CH 9: Intelligence & Neuropsych Testing Q: What does Spearman’s theory of intelligence propose? A: A general intelligence factor called g underlies all cognitive abilities. Q: What did Thurstone contribute to intelligence theory? A: Proposed multiple primary mental abilities instead of one general intelligence. Q: What is fluid intelligence? A: Problem-solving and reasoning in new situations. Q: What is crystallized intelligence? A: Learned knowledge and experience-based skills. Q: Who developed the Wechsler intelligence tests? A: David Wechsler. Q: What are the 3 Wechsler scales? A: WAIS (adults), WISC (children), WPPSI (preschool). Q: What are the 4 WAIS index scores? A: Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Reasoning, Working Memory, Processing Speed. Q: What is the Stanford-Binet test used for? A: Measuring general intelligence (IQ), especially in children. Q: What is neuropsychological testing used for? A: Assessing brain functioning (injury, dementia, learning disorders, etc.). Q: Name two major neuropsych batteries. A: Halstead-Reitan, Luria-Nebraska. ⸻ 🧠 CH 10: Personality Assessment Q: What is multimethod assessment? A: Using multiple types of assessment (tests, interviews, observation). Q: What is the MMPI-2? A: A true/false personality test measuring psychopathology. Q: What are MMPI validity scales used for? A: Detecting inconsistent answers, exaggeration, or faking. Q: What is malingering? A: Faking or exaggerating symptoms for external gain. Q: What is empirical criterion keying? A: MMPI method of selecting test items based on real group differences. Q: What is the MCMI-IV? A: Personality inventory based on Millon’s theory of personality disorders. Q: What is the Big Five model? A: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism. Q: What is the Beck Depression Inventory? A: Self-report measure of depression severity. Q: What is the Rorschach test? A: Inkblot test used to assess personality and unconscious processes. Q: What is the TAT? A: Storytelling test using ambiguous pictures. Q: What is behavioral assessment? A: Direct measurement of behavior through observation or recording. ⸻ 🧠 CH 15: Cognitive Therapy Q: Who developed CBT? A: Aaron Beck. Q: Who developed REBT? A: Albert Ellis. Q: What are automatic thoughts? A: Immediate, involuntary thoughts that affect emotions. Q: What is the cognitive triad? A: Negative views of self, world, and future. Q: What are cognitive distortions? A: Irrational thinking patterns (e.g., catastrophizing). Q: What is the goal of cognitive therapy? A: Change maladaptive thoughts to improve emotions/behavior. Q: What is the ABCDE model? A: Activating event → Beliefs → Consequences → Disputation → Effect. Q: What is mindfulness? A: Nonjudgmental awareness of thoughts and feelings. Q: What is ACT? A: Therapy focusing on acceptance and values-based action. Q: What is DBT used for? A: Emotion regulation and distress tolerance skills. ⸻ 🧠 CH 16: Group & Family Therapy Q: What did Yalom emphasize in group therapy? A: Interpersonal learning and universality. Q: What is universality? A: Realizing others share similar struggles. Q: What is group cohesiveness? A: Sense of belonging within the group. Q: What are the stages of group therapy? A: Initial, transition, working stage. Q: What is the main idea of family therapy? A: The system is the problem, not the individual. Q: What is circular causality? A: Each person influences others in a cycle. Q: What is an identified patient? A: The family member labeled as “the problem.” Q: What are boundaries in family systems? A: Rules defining closeness or separation (enmeshed vs disengaged). Q: What is a triangle in family therapy? A: When tension between two people involves a third person. ⸻ 🧠 CH 17: Child & Adolescent Psych Q: What are externalizing disorders? A: Outward behaviors (aggression, ADHD, conduct problems). Q: What are internalizing disorders? A: Inward distress (anxiety, depression). Q: Which are easier to detect? A: Externalizing disorders. Q: What is a developmental perspective? A: Considering age-related changes in behavior. Q: What is resilience? A: Ability to adapt despite adversity. Q: What are Grotberg’s resilience categories? A: I have, I am, I can. Q: What is play therapy? A: Therapy using play to express emotions in children. Q: What are two types of play therapy? A: Directive and nondirective. ⸻ 🧠 CH 18: Health Psychology Q: What is health psychology? A: Study of psychological factors in health and illness. Q: Who developed General Adaptation Syndrome? A: Hans Selye. Q: What are the 3 stages of GAS? A: Alarm, resistance, exhaustion. Q: What is cortisol? A: Stress hormone released by the body. Q: What is psychoneuroimmunology? A: Study of mind–brain–immune system interactions. Q: What is chronic stress linked to? A: Increased illness risk and immune suppression. Q: What is coping? A: Strategies to manage stress. Q: What is biofeedback? A: Using feedback to control physiological functions. ⸻ 🧠 CH 19: Forensic Psychology Q: What is forensic psychology? A: Application of psychology to the legal system. Q: What is competency to stand trial? A: Ability to understand legal proceedings and assist defense. Q: What is insanity defense? A: Not guilty by reason of mental illness at time of crime. Q: What is civil commitment? A: Court-ordered psychiatric hospitalization. Q: What is an expert witness? A: Psychologist who provides testimony in court. Q: What is voir dire? A: Jury selection questioning process. Q: What is malingering in forensic settings? A: Faking symptoms for legal advantage. Q: Which test is preferred in forensic assessment and why? A: MMPI-2 because validity scales detect deception. Q: Why are projective tests not preferred legally? A: Low reliability and subjective interpretation

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Final Exam Notes Motivation — the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors Need — a requirement for survival (e.g. food, water); unmet needs motivate behavior Need hierarchy — Maslow’s model ranking human needs (physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization) Drive — an internal state created by unmet needs (biological drive) Homeostasis — tendency of body systems to maintain internal stability Drive reduction — theory that motivation arises from the desire to reduce drives (i.e. satisfy needs) Arousal — state of being physiologically alert, awake, and attentive Optimal arousal — level of arousal leading to best performance (too low or too high impairs performance) Pleasure principle — Freud’s idea that behavior is driven to seek pleasure and avoid pain Incentive — external stimulus that “pulls” behavior (rewards, goals) Intrinsic motivation — performing behavior for internal satisfaction or interest Extrinsic motivation — performing behavior to earn external reward or avoid punishment Biological factors (eating) — e.g. hunger signals from hypothalamus, genetics, metabolism Learning factors (eating) — e.g. food preferences, cultural influences, classical conditioning Achievement — desire to accomplish goals, attain standards Self-efficacy — belief in one’s ability to succeed at a task Delay of gratification — ability to resist short-term temptations for long-term goals Emotion — complex reaction involving subjective experience, physiological arousal, and expressive behaviors Primary emotions — basic emotions (e.g. joy, anger, fear, disgust, surprise) Secondary emotions — more complex emotions (e.g. guilt, shame, pride) James-Lange theory — emotion results from interpreting bodily reactions (e.g. see bear → heart races → feel fear) Cannon-Bard theory — emotions and physiological reactions occur simultaneously Two-factor (Schachter-Singer) theory — emotion = physiological arousal + cognitive label Amygdala — brain region involved in processing emotions, especially fear and threat detection Emotion regulation — methods to control or influence one’s emotions Thought suppression — trying to push thoughts/feelings out of mind Rumination — repetitively focusing on negative feelings Positive reappraisal — reinterpret event in a more positive light Humor — using jokes or laughter to cope with negative emotions Distraction — shifting attention away from emotional triggers Chapter 11: Health & Well-Being Health psychology — field studying psychological influences on health, illness, and wellness Well-being — sense of physical, mental, and social flourishing Biopsychosocial model — model that health is determined by biological, psychological, and social factors Body mass index (BMI) — weight (kg) / (height (m))²; used to classify obesity / overweight Overeating factors — biological (metabolism, hormones), social (availability, norms), genetic predisposition Anorexia nervosa — eating disorder where individuals restrict food intake, fear weight gain, distorted body image Bulimia nervosa — cycle of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors (e.g. purging, fasting, exercising) Binge-eating disorder — recurrent episodes of eating large amounts without compensatory behaviors Stress — a process by which we perceive and respond to events appraised as overwhelming Stressor — event or condition that triggers stress response Stress response — physical, emotional, and behavioral reaction to a stressor Major life stressors — big events causing substantial change (e.g. death, job loss) Daily hassles — everyday annoyances that accumulate stress (e.g. traffic, chores) General adaptation syndrome (GAS) — three-stage model of stress response GAS phases: alarm reaction → resistance → exhaustion Fight-or-flight response — physiological response to threat (sympathetic activation) Tend-and-befriend response — stress response especially in women: nurturing and social affiliation Type A behavior pattern — competitive, time-urgent, hostile personality (linked to heart disease) Type B behavior pattern — relaxed, easygoing, less competitive Coping — efforts to manage stress Primary appraisal — evaluating whether a stressor is harmful, threatening, or challenging Secondary appraisal — evaluating one’s resources to cope Emotion-focused coping — regulating emotional response to stressor Problem-focused coping — tackling the stressor directly to reduce or eliminate it Positive psychology — field focusing on strengths, well-being, and human flourishing Five ways to stay healthy — e.g. good diet, exercise, sleep, social support, stress management Chapter 12: Social Psychology Personal attributions — attributing behavior to internal traits or dispositions Situational attributions — attributing behavior to external circumstances Fundamental attribution error — tendency to overestimate personal factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining others’ behavior Actor/observer bias — tendency to attribute one’s own actions to the situation, but others’ actions to internal traits Self-fulfilling prophecy — expectation that leads you to act in ways that make it come true Stereotypes — fixed, overgeneralized beliefs about a group Prejudice — negative attitude toward a group Discrimination — negative behavior directed at a group Ingroup bias — favoring one’s own group Outgroup bias — negative attitudes toward those outside one’s group Attitudes — evaluations of people, objects, or ideas (positive/negative) Mere exposure effect — repeated exposure to something increases liking Cognitive dissonance — discomfort when beliefs, attitudes, or behavior conflict Postdecision dissonance — tension after making a choice, leading to justifying one’s decision Persuasion — process of changing attitudes Central route — persuasion via thoughtful consideration of arguments Peripheral route — persuasion via superficial cues (e.g. attractiveness, emotion) Social facilitation — improved performance in presence of others on simple tasks Social loafing — exerting less effort when working in a group Deindividuation — loss of self-awareness/inhibition in group situations Conformity — adjusting behavior or thinking to match a group standard Compliance — changing behavior in response to a direct request Obedience — following orders from an authority figure Milgram’s study — obedience experiments where participants (under instruction) delivered shocks to a “learner” Bystander intervention effect — tendency for individuals less likely to help when others are present Chapter 14: Psychological Disorders Psychopathology — study of psychological disorders; abnormal patterns of behavior, thoughts, or feelings Diathesis-stress model — view that psychological disorders develop due to genetic vulnerability + stress Biopsychosocial approach (to disorders) — disorders result from biological, psychological, and social factors DSM-5 — Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (standard classification of mental disorders) Specific phobia — irrational fear of specific object or situation Social anxiety disorder — intense fear of social situations or being judged Generalized anxiety disorder — chronic, uncontrollable worry about multiple domains Panic disorder — recurrent, unexpected panic attacks Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) — obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (ritualistic behaviors) Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) — disorder following exposure to traumatic event, with flashbacks, avoidance, hypervigilance Major depressive disorder — persistent sadness, loss of interest, and other symptoms interfering with daily life Bipolar I disorder — periods of mania (and usually depression) Bipolar II disorder — hypomania (less severe mania) + major depressive episodes Schizophrenia — disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, negative symptoms Positive symptoms (in schizophrenia) — delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech Negative symptoms — flat affect, social withdrawal, lack of motivation Hallucinations — perceptual experiences without external stimuli Delusions — false beliefs held despite evidence to the contrary Disorganized speech — incoherent or illogical thought reflected in speech Disorganized behavior — inappropriate or bizarre behavior Biological risk factors (schizophrenia) — genetics, neurotransmitter abnormalities, brain structure Environmental risk factors — prenatal exposure, stress, family environment Borderline personality disorder — instability in mood, self-image, relationships, impulsivity Antisocial personality disorder (APD) — disregard for others’ rights, lack of remorse Dissociative amnesia — inability to recall important personal information (usually after trauma) Dissociative identity disorder (DID) — presence of two or more distinct identity states Autism spectrum disorder — deficits in social communication, restricted/repetitive behaviors ADHD (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder) — inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity Chapter 15: Psychological Treatment Psychotherapy — therapy involving psychological techniques to treat mental disorders Psychodynamic therapy — therapy based on psychoanalytic concepts (e.g. unconscious conflicts) Humanistic therapy — focuses on growth, self-actualization, and client potential (e.g. Rogerian) Behavior therapy — uses learning principles (classical/operant conditioning) to change behavior Cognitive therapy — focuses on changing maladaptive thoughts or beliefs Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) — integrates cognitive and behavioral methods Group therapy — therapy conducted with multiple participants simultaneously Family therapy — therapeutic approach focusing on family relationships Biological therapy — treatment using biological methods (e.g. medication, brain stimulation) Psychotropic medications — drugs that affect mental processes (e.g. antidepressants, antipsychotics) Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) — inducing seizures via electrical current to treat severe depression Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) — using magnetic fields to stimulate brain regions Deep brain stimulation (DBS) — surgical implantation of electrodes to stimulate brain structures Exposure (in CBT) — confronting feared stimuli directly in safe context Systematic desensitization — gradual exposure combined with relaxation Cognitive restructuring — changing negative thought patterns Exposure-response prevention — exposure without performing compulsive behavior (used for OCD) SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) — class of antidepressants (e.g. Prozac, Zoloft) Treatment for depression — CBT + SSRIs often most effective Bipolar treatment — mood stabilizers (e.g"

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