Final Exam Notes Motivation — the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors Need — a requirement for survival (e.g. food, water); unmet needs motivate behavior Need hierarchy — Maslow’s model ranking human needs (physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization) Drive — an internal state created by unmet needs (biological drive) Homeostasis — tendency of body systems to maintain internal stability Drive reduction — theory that motivation arises from the desire to reduce drives (i.e. satisfy needs) Arousal — state of being physiologically alert, awake, and attentive Optimal arousal — level of arousal leading to best performance (too low or too high impairs performance) Pleasure principle — Freud’s idea that behavior is driven to seek pleasure and avoid pain Incentive — external stimulus that “pulls” behavior (rewards, goals) Intrinsic motivation — performing behavior for internal satisfaction or interest Extrinsic motivation — performing behavior to earn external reward or avoid punishment Biological factors (eating) — e.g. hunger signals from hypothalamus, genetics, metabolism Learning factors (eating) — e.g. food preferences, cultural influences, classical conditioning Achievement — desire to accomplish goals, attain standards Self-efficacy — belief in one’s ability to succeed at a task Delay of gratification — ability to resist short-term temptations for long-term goals Emotion — complex reaction involving subjective experience, physiological arousal, and expressive behaviors Primary emotions — basic emotions (e.g. joy, anger, fear, disgust, surprise) Secondary emotions — more complex emotions (e.g. guilt, shame, pride) James-Lange theory — emotion results from interpreting bodily reactions (e.g. see bear → heart races → feel fear) Cannon-Bard theory — emotions and physiological reactions occur simultaneously Two-factor (Schachter-Singer) theory — emotion = physiological arousal + cognitive label Amygdala — brain region involved in processing emotions, especially fear and threat detection Emotion regulation — methods to control or influence one’s emotions Thought suppression — trying to push thoughts/feelings out of mind Rumination — repetitively focusing on negative feelings Positive reappraisal — reinterpret event in a more positive light Humor — using jokes or laughter to cope with negative emotions Distraction — shifting attention away from emotional triggers Chapter 11: Health & Well-Being Health psychology — field studying psychological influences on health, illness, and wellness Well-being — sense of physical, mental, and social flourishing Biopsychosocial model — model that health is determined by biological, psychological, and social factors Body mass index (BMI) — weight (kg) / (height (m))²; used to classify obesity / overweight Overeating factors — biological (metabolism, hormones), social (availability, norms), genetic predisposition Anorexia nervosa — eating disorder where individuals restrict food intake, fear weight gain, distorted body image Bulimia nervosa — cycle of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors (e.g. purging, fasting, exercising) Binge-eating disorder — recurrent episodes of eating large amounts without compensatory behaviors Stress — a process by which we perceive and respond to events appraised as overwhelming Stressor — event or condition that triggers stress response Stress response — physical, emotional, and behavioral reaction to a stressor Major life stressors — big events causing substantial change (e.g. death, job loss) Daily hassles — everyday annoyances that accumulate stress (e.g. traffic, chores) General adaptation syndrome (GAS) — three-stage model of stress response GAS phases: alarm reaction → resistance → exhaustion Fight-or-flight response — physiological response to threat (sympathetic activation) Tend-and-befriend response — stress response especially in women: nurturing and social affiliation Type A behavior pattern — competitive, time-urgent, hostile personality (linked to heart disease) Type B behavior pattern — relaxed, easygoing, less competitive Coping — efforts to manage stress Primary appraisal — evaluating whether a stressor is harmful, threatening, or challenging Secondary appraisal — evaluating one’s resources to cope Emotion-focused coping — regulating emotional response to stressor Problem-focused coping — tackling the stressor directly to reduce or eliminate it Positive psychology — field focusing on strengths, well-being, and human flourishing Five ways to stay healthy — e.g. good diet, exercise, sleep, social support, stress management Chapter 12: Social Psychology Personal attributions — attributing behavior to internal traits or dispositions Situational attributions — attributing behavior to external circumstances Fundamental attribution error — tendency to overestimate personal factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining others’ behavior Actor/observer bias — tendency to attribute one’s own actions to the situation, but others’ actions to internal traits Self-fulfilling prophecy — expectation that leads you to act in ways that make it come true Stereotypes — fixed, overgeneralized beliefs about a group Prejudice — negative attitude toward a group Discrimination — negative behavior directed at a group Ingroup bias — favoring one’s own group Outgroup bias — negative attitudes toward those outside one’s group Attitudes — evaluations of people, objects, or ideas (positive/negative) Mere exposure effect — repeated exposure to something increases liking Cognitive dissonance — discomfort when beliefs, attitudes, or behavior conflict Postdecision dissonance — tension after making a choice, leading to justifying one’s decision Persuasion — process of changing attitudes Central route — persuasion via thoughtful consideration of arguments Peripheral route — persuasion via superficial cues (e.g. attractiveness, emotion) Social facilitation — improved performance in presence of others on simple tasks Social loafing — exerting less effort when working in a group Deindividuation — loss of self-awareness/inhibition in group situations Conformity — adjusting behavior or thinking to match a group standard Compliance — changing behavior in response to a direct request Obedience — following orders from an authority figure Milgram’s study — obedience experiments where participants (under instruction) delivered shocks to a “learner” Bystander intervention effect — tendency for individuals less likely to help when others are present Chapter 14: Psychological Disorders Psychopathology — study of psychological disorders; abnormal patterns of behavior, thoughts, or feelings Diathesis-stress model — view that psychological disorders develop due to genetic vulnerability + stress Biopsychosocial approach (to disorders) — disorders result from biological, psychological, and social factors DSM-5 — Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (standard classification of mental disorders) Specific phobia — irrational fear of specific object or situation Social anxiety disorder — intense fear of social situations or being judged Generalized anxiety disorder — chronic, uncontrollable worry about multiple domains Panic disorder — recurrent, unexpected panic attacks Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) — obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (ritualistic behaviors) Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) — disorder following exposure to traumatic event, with flashbacks, avoidance, hypervigilance Major depressive disorder — persistent sadness, loss of interest, and other symptoms interfering with daily life Bipolar I disorder — periods of mania (and usually depression) Bipolar II disorder — hypomania (less severe mania) + major depressive episodes Schizophrenia — disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, negative symptoms Positive symptoms (in schizophrenia) — delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech Negative symptoms — flat affect, social withdrawal, lack of motivation Hallucinations — perceptual experiences without external stimuli Delusions — false beliefs held despite evidence to the contrary Disorganized speech — incoherent or illogical thought reflected in speech Disorganized behavior — inappropriate or bizarre behavior Biological risk factors (schizophrenia) — genetics, neurotransmitter abnormalities, brain structure Environmental risk factors — prenatal exposure, stress, family environment Borderline personality disorder — instability in mood, self-image, relationships, impulsivity Antisocial personality disorder (APD) — disregard for others’ rights, lack of remorse Dissociative amnesia — inability to recall important personal information (usually after trauma) Dissociative identity disorder (DID) — presence of two or more distinct identity states Autism spectrum disorder — deficits in social communication, restricted/repetitive behaviors ADHD (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder) — inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity Chapter 15: Psychological Treatment Psychotherapy — therapy involving psychological techniques to treat mental disorders Psychodynamic therapy — therapy based on psychoanalytic concepts (e.g. unconscious conflicts) Humanistic therapy — focuses on growth, self-actualization, and client potential (e.g. Rogerian) Behavior therapy — uses learning principles (classical/operant conditioning) to change behavior Cognitive therapy — focuses on changing maladaptive thoughts or beliefs Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) — integrates cognitive and behavioral methods Group therapy — therapy conducted with multiple participants simultaneously Family therapy — therapeutic approach focusing on family relationships Biological therapy — treatment using biological methods (e.g. medication, brain stimulation) Psychotropic medications — drugs that affect mental processes (e.g. antidepressants, antipsychotics) Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) — inducing seizures via electrical current to treat severe depression Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) — using magnetic fields to stimulate brain regions Deep brain stimulation (DBS) — surgical implantation of electrodes to stimulate brain structures Exposure (in CBT) — confronting feared stimuli directly in safe context Systematic desensitization — gradual exposure combined with relaxation Cognitive restructuring — changing negative thought patterns Exposure-response prevention — exposure without performing compulsive behavior (used for OCD) SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) — class of antidepressants (e.g. Prozac, Zoloft) Treatment for depression — CBT + SSRIs often most effective Bipolar treatment — mood stabilizers (e.g"

Motivation

Process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.

Need (in motivation)

A requirement for survival (e.g. food, water); unmet needs motivate behavior.

Maslow's Need Hierarchy

Physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization.

Drive

Internal state created by unmet needs, often biological.

Homeostasis

Body systems maintaining internal stability.

Drive Reduction Theory

Motivation from desire to reduce drives and satisfy needs.

Arousal (psychological)

Physiologically alert, awake, and attentive state.

Optimal Arousal

Arousal level for best performance; too low/high impairs it.

Pleasure Principle (Freud)

Behavior driven to seek pleasure and avoid pain.

Incentive

External stimulus 'pulling' behavior (e.g. rewards, goals).

Intrinsic Motivation

Motivation from internal satisfaction, not external rewards.

Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation by external rewards or avoiding punishment.

Biological Factors in Eating Behavior

Hypothalamus hunger signals, genetics, metabolism.

Learning Factors in Eating Behavior

Food preferences, culture, classical conditioning.

Achievement (motivation)

Desire to accomplish goals and attain standards.

Self-Efficacy

Belief in one’s ability to succeed.

Delay of Gratification

Resisting short-term temptations for long-term goals.

Emotion (psychology)

Complex reaction: subjective experience, physiological arousal, expressive behaviors.

Primary Emotions

Basic emotions: joy, anger, fear, disgust, surprise.

Secondary Emotions

Complex emotions: guilt, shame, pride.

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Emotions result from interpreting bodily reactions (e.g. see bear \to heart races \to feel fear).

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Emotions and physiological reactions occur simultaneously.

Two-Factor (Schachter-Singer) Theory of Emotion

Emotion = physiological arousal + cognitive label.

Amygdala's Role in Emotion

Processes emotions, especially fear and threat detection.

Emotion Regulation

Methods to control/influence emotions.

Thought Suppression

Pushing thoughts/feelings out of mind.

Rumination

Repetitively focusing on negative feelings.

Positive Reappraisal

Reinterpreting events positively to manage emotions.

Humor (Emotion Regulation)

Using jokes/laughter to cope with negative emotions.

Distraction (Emotion Regulation)

Shifting attention from emotional triggers.

Health Psychology

Studies psychological influences on health, illness, wellness.

Well-Being

Physical, mental, social flourishing.

Biopsychosocial Model

Health determined by biological, psychological, social factors.

Body Mass Index (BMI) Calculation

\text{Weight (kg)} / \text{Height (m)}^2; classifies obesity/overweight.

Factors Contributing to Overeating

Biological (metabolism, hormones), social (availability, norms), genetic predisposition.

Anorexia Nervosa

Restricting food intake, fear of weight gain, distorted body image.

Bulimia Nervosa

Binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors (purging, fasting, exercising).

Binge-Eating Disorder

Recurrent episodes of eating large amounts without compensatory behaviors.

Stress

Perceiving/responding to overwhelming events.

Stressor

Event/condition triggering a stress response.

Stress Response

Physical, emotional, behavioral reaction to a stressor.

Major Life Stressors

Big events causing substantial change (e.g. death, job loss).

Daily Hassles

Everyday annoyances accumulating stress (e.g. traffic, chores).

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Three-stage stress response: alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

Fight-or-Flight Response

Physiological response to threat; sympathetic nervous system activation.

Tend-and-Befriend Response

Stress response (esp. in women): nurturing and social affiliation.

Type A Behavior Pattern

Competitive, time-urgent, hostile personality; linked to heart disease risk.

Type B Behavior Pattern

Relaxed, easygoing, less competitive personality.

Coping (Stress)

Efforts to manage stress.

Primary Appraisal

Evaluating a stressor as harmful, threatening, or challenging.

Secondary Appraisal

Evaluating one's resources to cope with a stressor.

Emotion-Focused Coping

Regulating emotional responses to a stressor.

Problem-Focused Coping

Directly tackling a stressor to reduce or eliminate it.

Positive Psychology

Focuses on strengths, well-being, and human flourishing.

Ways to Stay Healthy

Good diet, exercise, sleep, social support, stress management.

Personal Attributions

Attributing behavior to internal traits or dispositions.

Situational Attributions

Attributing behavior to external circumstances.

Fundamental Attribution Error

Overestimating personal factors and underestimating situational factors when explaining others' behavior.

Actor-Observer Bias

Attributing one's own actions to situation, but others' actions to internal traits.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

An expectation that leads to actions making it come true.

Stereotypes (psychology)

Fixed, overgeneralized beliefs about a group.

Prejudice

A negative attitude toward a group.

Discrimination

Negative behavior directed at a group.

Ingroup Bias

Favoring one's own group over others.

Outgroup Biases

Negative attitudes or behaviors toward those outside one's own group.

Attitudes (Social Psychology)

Evaluations of people, objects, or ideas (positive/negative).

Mere Exposure Effect

Repeated exposure to something increases liking for it.

Cognitive Dissonance

Discomfort experienced when beliefs, attitudes, or behavior conflict.

Postdecision Dissonance

Tension after a choice, leading to justifying it.

Persuasion

The process of changing attitudes.

Central Route to Persuasion

Persuasion via thoughtful consideration of arguments and evidence.

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

Persuasion via superficial cues (e.g. attractiveness, emotion) rather than arguments.

Social Facilitation

Improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

Social Loafing

Exerting less effort when working in a group compared to working alone.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness and inhibition in group situations.

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to match a group standard.

Compliance

Changing behavior in response to a direct request.

Obedience (psychology)

Following orders from an authority figure.

Milgram's Study

An obedience experiment where participants delivered 'shocks' to a 'learner' under instruction.

Bystander Intervention Effect

Individuals are less likely to help someone in need when others are present.

Psychopathology

The scientific study of psychological disorders; abnormal behavior, thoughts, or feelings.

Diathesis-Stress Model

A model where disorders develop from a genetic vulnerability (diathesis) combined with environmental stress.

Biopsychosocial Approach (Disorders)

Disorders result from an interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors.

DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)

The current manual used to classify and diagnose mental disorders.

Specific Phobia

An irrational, intense fear of a specific object or situation.

Social Anxiety Disorder

Intense fear of social situations, especially of being judged or scrutinized by others.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

Chronic, excessive, and uncontrollable worry about multiple aspects of life.

Panic Disorder

Characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks and fear of future attacks.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Features obsessions (intrusive, unwanted thoughts) and compulsions (ritualistic behaviors performed to reduce anxiety).

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

A disorder developing after exposure to a traumatic event, characterized by flashbacks, avoidance, and hypervigilance.

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

Persistent sadness, loss of interest or pleasure, and other symptoms interfering with daily life for at least two weeks.

Bipolar I Disorder

Characterized by episodes of mania, which may be preceded or followed by hypomanic or major depressive episodes.

Bipolar II Disorder

Features at least one major depressive episode and at least one hypomanic episode (less severe than mania), but no full manic episodes.

Schizophrenia

A chronic mental disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, disorganized behavior, and/or negative symptoms.

Positive Symptoms (Schizophrenia)

Symptoms that are additions to normal behavior, such as delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized speech.

Negative Symptoms (Schizophrenia)

Symptoms characterized by the absence of normal behaviors, such as flat affect, social withdrawal, and lack of motivation.

Hallucinations

Perceptual experiences occurring without external sensory stimuli.

Delusions

False beliefs that are firmly held despite clear evidence to the contrary.

Disorganized Speech

Incoherent or illogical thought expressed through speech.

Disorganized Behavior

Inappropriate or bizarre actions that impair daily functioning.