colonialism

La Ropa y Los Colores

Shakespeare's Tempest: Colonialism, Psychology, and Critical Perspectives

Colors

Unit 1: Psychology’s History and Approaches Big Idea: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. This unit asks: Why do people think, feel, and behave the way they do, and how do psychologists study it? 1. Early Schools of Thought Structuralism Focused on breaking conscious experiences into smaller parts. Example: Describing every taste, smell, and feeling while eating pizza. Functionalism Focused on WHY behaviors and thoughts exist. Example: Fear exists because it helps humans survive danger. Connection: Structuralists asked “What are thoughts made of?” Functionalists asked “What purpose do thoughts serve?” 2. Major Psychological Perspectives Biological Perspective Behavior comes from the brain, genetics, and hormones. Example: Depression connected to serotonin levels. Behavioral Perspective Behavior is learned through rewards and punishments. Example: A dog learns tricks because it gets treats. Cognitive Perspective Focuses on thinking, memory, and problem-solving. Example: Why students remember some facts better than others. Humanistic Perspective Humans naturally strive for growth. Example: Trying to achieve goals and improve yourself. Psychodynamic Perspective Unconscious conflicts affect behavior. Example: Getting unusually angry because of hidden stress. Evolutionary Perspective Behaviors developed because they helped survival. Example: Humans naturally fearing dangerous animals. Sociocultural Perspective Behavior is shaped by culture and society. Example: Different cultures have different expectations for personal space. 3. Research Methods Experiment Used to determine cause and effect. Independent Variable What the researcher changes. Dependent Variable What the researcher measures. Example: Studying whether sleep affects test scores. * Amount of sleep = IV * Test score = DV Correlation Shows relationship between variables. Important: Correlation does NOT equal causation. Example: Ice cream sales and drowning both rise during summer. Random Assignment Participants randomly placed into groups. Helps reduce bias. Double-Blind Procedure Neither researchers nor participants know who receives treatment. Prevents expectations from affecting results. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION The AP exam loves asking: * Which perspective best explains this behavior? * Which research method should be used? * Why doesn’t correlation prove causation? Example: A psychologist studies how rewards affect studying. → Behavioral perspective + experiment Unit 2: Biological Basis of Behavior Big Idea: Your brain, nervous system, hormones, and genetics all shape behavior. The whole unit asks: How do your body and brain create thoughts, emotions, and behavior? 1. Nature vs. Nurture = Who You Are Main Idea: Your behavior comes from BOTH: * Nature = genetics/heredity * Nurture = environment and experiences Example: Someone may inherit anxiety tendencies but stressful experiences can make anxiety stronger. 2. Nervous System Central Nervous System Brain + spinal cord. Peripheral Nervous System Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. Sympathetic Nervous System Activates during stress. Example: Heart racing before giving a speech. Parasympathetic Nervous System Calms the body afterward. 3. Neurotransmitters Dopamine Reward and pleasure. Example: Social media likes feel rewarding. Serotonin Mood and sleep. Low levels linked to depression. Acetylcholine Movement and memory. Linked to Alzheimer’s disease. GABA Calms nervous system. Low GABA linked to anxiety. 4. Brain Structures Frontal Lobe Decision-making and personality. Occipital Lobe Vision. Temporal Lobe Hearing and memory. Hippocampus Memory formation. Amygdala Fear and aggression. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION A student panicking before a test: * amygdala activates fear * sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate * adrenaline releases Unit 3: Sensation and Perception Big Idea: Sensation detects information. Perception interprets information. This unit asks: How does the brain create your experience of the world? 1. Sensation Absolute Threshold Smallest amount of stimulation needed to notice something. Example: Hearing a quiet text notification. Difference Threshold Smallest noticeable difference between stimuli. Example: Noticing the TV volume changed. Sensory Adaptation Becoming less aware of constant stimulation. Example: Not noticing your hoodie after wearing it awhile. 2. Vision Rods Help see in dim light. Cones Detect color. Blind Spot Area without receptors. 3. Hearing Frequency Determines pitch. Amplitude Determines loudness. 4. Perception Gestalt Principles The brain organizes pieces into meaningful wholes. Example: Seeing a complete logo even with missing parts. Depth Perception Ability to see distance in 3D. Example: Catching a volleyball. Perceptual Set Expectations affect perception. Example: Misreading a word because you expected something else. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION The exam often gives optical illusions or perception scenarios. Example: A person stops noticing a strong smell after 10 minutes. → sensory adaptation Unit 4: Learning Big Idea: Behavior changes because of experience. This unit asks: How do humans and animals learn behaviors? 1. Classical Conditioning Learning through association. Pavlov’s Dogs Dogs learned to associate a bell with food. Unconditioned Stimulus Naturally causes response. Conditioned Stimulus Previously neutral stimulus causing learned response. Example: Feeling hungry when hearing the microwave beep. 2. Operant Conditioning Learning through rewards and punishments. Positive Reinforcement Adding something good to increase behavior. Example: Getting money for good grades. Negative Reinforcement Removing something unpleasant. Example: Seatbelt alarm stopping. Punishment Decreases behavior. 3. Observational Learning Learning by watching others. Example: Kids copying influencers online. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION The AP exam loves reinforcement examples. Example: A student studies harder after praise from parents. → positive reinforcement Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology Big Idea: Humans think, remember, solve problems, and use language. This unit asks: How does the mind process information? 1. Memory Process Encoding Getting information into memory. Storage Keeping information over time. Retrieval Getting information back. 2. Types of Memory Sensory Memory Very brief memory. Short-Term Memory Temporary limited storage. Long-Term Memory Relatively permanent storage. Working Memory Actively using information. Example: Doing math in your head. 3. Forgetting Proactive Interference Old information disrupts new information. Retroactive Interference New information disrupts old information. Example: Forgetting old password after learning a new one. 4. Problem Solving Algorithm Step-by-step method. Heuristic Mental shortcut. Confirmation Bias Looking for information supporting beliefs. Example: Only reading opinions you already agree with. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION A student mixes up Spanish vocabulary from last year with current vocabulary. → proactive interference Unit 6: Developmental Psychology Big Idea: Humans develop physically, mentally, and socially across life. This unit asks: How do people change from infancy through adulthood? 1. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Stage Babies learn through senses and actions. Object Permanence Understanding objects still exist when hidden. Example: Babies searching for hidden toys. Preoperational Stage Children use language but think egocentrically. Egocentrism Difficulty understanding another perspective. Example: A child assuming everyone sees exactly what they see. Concrete Operational Stage Logical thinking develops. Formal Operational Stage Abstract thinking develops. Example: Thinking about hypothetical situations. 2. Attachment Strong emotional bond with caregivers. Secure Attachment Healthy trust and comfort. 3. Parenting Styles Authoritative Strict but supportive. Usually healthiest. Authoritarian Strict with little warmth. Permissive Warm but few rules. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION A teenager exploring identity and future goals. → Erikson’s identity vs role confusion stage Unit 7: Motivation, Emotion, and Personality Big Idea: Motivation drives behavior, emotions affect actions, and personality shapes how people interact. 1. Motivation Drive-Reduction Theory People act to reduce discomfort. Example: Eating when hungry. Maslow’s Hierarchy Basic needs come before higher goals. Example: Someone struggling financially may focus on survival before self-esteem. 2. Emotion Theories James-Lange Theory Physical response first. Example: Heart races THEN fear is felt. Cannon-Bard Theory Emotion and physical response happen together. Schachter Two-Factor Theory Emotion depends on physical arousal plus interpretation. 3. Personality Trait Theory Personality made of stable characteristics. Big Five Traits * openness * conscientiousness * extraversion * agreeableness * neuroticism BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION A student interpreting sweaty palms before a game as excitement. → Schachter two-factor theory Unit 8: Clinical Psychology Big Idea: Psychological disorders affect thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. This unit asks: How are disorders identified and treated? 1. Anxiety Disorders Generalized Anxiety Disorder Constant excessive worry. Phobias Irrational fears. OCD Obsessions and compulsions. 2. Mood Disorders Major Depressive Disorder Persistent sadness and loss of interest. Bipolar Disorder Extreme mood swings. 3. Schizophrenia Disordered thinking and perception. Hallucinations False sensory experiences. Delusions False beliefs. 4

Spanish Vocabulary - Room Items, Colors, and Restaurant Terms

Ch 2 Body Structure, Color, and Oncology

case study- non experimental self report bias- reporting yourself inaccurately percentile rank - percentage of scores that are less than a given score epigenetics- they study of if a gene has been expressed or not CNS- brain and spinal chord PNS- sensory and motor neurons sympathetic nervous system- fight or flight parasympathetic- calms the body somatic- controls the body autonomic - automatic movement like the hear glial cells- help with memory and learning reuptake - reabsorption ACH- movement dopamine- reward serotonin- mood norepinephrine - alertness GABA- inhibitory transmitter calm endorphins- pain EEG- electrical waves MEG- magnetic waves to see electrical activity CT-photos to see structure PET- radioactive brain activity MRI- magnetic waves to see soft tissue fMRI-structure and activity thalamus- sensory hypothalamus- drinking,eating,moving medulla- breathing brain stem- homeostasis cerebellum -balance and sensory REM- eye movement and dreams absolute threshold- minimum stimulus needed signal detection- when we detect a stimulus transduction- senses into neural impulses bottom up- processing beginning with sensory top down- constructing an image based on precious knowledge rods-perifreal cones-color kinesthesis- movement sense convergent thinking- narrowing down divergent- many ideas assimilation- adding new experiences to schemas heuristic- shortcut availability heuristic- likelihood of events based on memory (plane more dangerous than car) representative heuristic- likelihood based on how weak it matches the prototype anterograde amneasia- cant form new memories retrograde- cant remember past Proactive interference- old blocks new Retroactive interference -new blocks old preoperational- use language not comprehend concrete operational- thinking logically formal operational- think about abstract cognitive- learning negative reinforcement- removing something annoying positive reinforcement- increasing something with good response variable ratio- whenever fixed- fixed

(3) England: Notable Concepts (inc. Systems, Technologies, etc.) and Notable Groups (inc. Colonies)

Cancro do Colon Precoce

Modern Civilizations — Semester 2 Exam Study Guide Exam Date: May 22 Format: Bubble Sheet Questions: 123 total • 50 Vocabulary/Matching • 50 Multiple Choice • 16 Map Skills • 7 Document-Based Questions ⸻ SECTION A — GEOGRAPHY SKILLS Key Vocabulary Cardinal Directions • North • South • East • West Shown on a compass rose. Intermediate Directions • Northeast • Northwest • Southeast • Southwest Latitude Imaginary lines that run east-west and measure distance north or south of the Equator. Longitude Imaginary lines that run north-south and measure distance east or west of the Prime Meridian. Projection A flat map representation of Earth. Scale Shows distance on a map. Distortion When map shapes, sizes, or distances are changed because Earth is round. ⸻ 5 Themes of Geography 1. Location Where a place is. 2. Place What a place is like. 3. Movement How people, goods, and ideas move. 4. Region An area with common features. 5. Human-Environment Interaction How people affect and adapt to the environment. ⸻ Continents & Oceans 7 Continents • North America • South America • Europe • Asia • Africa • Australia • Antarctica 5 Oceans • Pacific • Atlantic • Indian • Arctic • Southern ⸻ CHAPTER 23 — SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION & AGE OF EXPLORATION Section 1 — Scientific Revolution Key Vocabulary Geocentric Theory Earth is the center of the universe. Heliocentric Theory The sun is the center of the solar system. Elliptical Oval-shaped planetary orbits. Scientific Method Organized process of observation, testing, and experimentation. Scientific Rationalism Using reason and logic to understand the world. ⸻ Important People Galileo Galilei Used a telescope to support heliocentric theory. Isaac Newton Developed laws of motion and gravity. Nicolaus Copernicus Proposed heliocentric theory. René Descartes Believed truth comes through reason. Robert Hooke Studied cells using microscopes. Sir Francis Bacon Promoted experimentation and observation. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Educational ideas Muslim scholars adopted from India • Mathematics • Astronomy • Number system (including zero) How were cells discovered? Scientists used microscopes to observe tiny living structures. Who led the study of cells? Robert Hooke ⸻ Section 2 — The Age of Exploration Key Vocabulary Caravel Fast, maneuverable sailing ship used by explorers. Colony Land controlled by another country. Exploit To use resources for benefit or profit. Quinine Medicine used against malaria. Rivalry Competition between nations. Smallpox Deadly disease spread to Native Americans. ⸻ Important People & Places Christopher Columbus Sailed for Spain and reached the Americas in 1492. Columbian Exchange Transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and ideas between Europe and the Americas. Dutch East India Company Controlled trade in Asia. Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile Sponsored Columbus’s voyage. Prince Henry the Navigator Encouraged Portuguese exploration. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Who was Prince Henry the Navigator? A Portuguese prince who funded exploration schools, maps, and voyages. Why was the Caravel important? • Faster ship • Easier to steer • Could sail against the wind • Allowed longer ocean voyages ⸻ Section 3 — European Empires Key Vocabulary Conquistador Spanish conqueror in the Americas. Plantation Large farm using forced labor. Racism Belief that one race is superior. Triangular Trade Trade route connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Middle Passage Brutal voyage transporting enslaved Africans to the Americas. ⸻ Important People & Places Atahualpa Last Inca emperor defeated by Spain. Francisco Pizarro Conquered the Inca Empire. Hernán Cortés Conquered the Aztec Empire. Pedro Álvares Cabral Claimed Brazil for Portugal. Tenochtitlan Capital of the Aztec Empire. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Describe the invasion of Mexico • Hernán Cortés led Spanish conquistadors. • The Aztecs were led by Montezuma. • Spanish had guns, horses, steel weapons, and Native allies. • Smallpox weakened the Aztecs. Conditions of the Middle Passage • Crowded ships • Disease • Starvation • Abuse and death Achievements of Portugal • Explored African coast • Opened sea routes to Asia • Built trading empire ⸻ CHAPTER 24 — ENLIGHTENMENT & REVOLUTIONS Section 1 — The Age of Reason Key Vocabulary Absolute Monarch King or queen with total power. Divine Right Belief that rulers receive power from God. Natural Rights Basic rights all people are born with. Enlightened Despot Ruler who accepted Enlightenment ideas. Laissez-faire Government should not interfere in economy. Free Enterprise Businesses operate with little government control. Philosophe French Enlightenment thinker. ⸻ Important People John Locke Believed people have natural rights. Montesquieu Supported separation of powers. Voltaire Supported freedom of speech and religion. Jean-Jacques Rousseau Believed government should follow the will of the people. Mary Wollstonecraft Supported women’s rights and education. Adam Smith Wrote about free-market economics. Louis XIV Example of an absolute monarch. Catherine the Great Enlightened despot of Russia. Frederick the Great Enlightened ruler. Joseph II Made reforms based on Enlightenment ideas. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts What group applied science ideas to government? The philosophes. Why did philosophes think justice systems were unfair? Punishments were cruel and laws treated social classes unequally. ⸻ Section 2 — Revolutions on Three Continents Key Vocabulary Bourgeoisie Middle class. Jacobins Radical French Revolution group. Declaration of Independence American colonies’ statement of freedom from Britain. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen French document declaring equality and rights. ⸻ Important People Thomas Jefferson Main writer of the Declaration of Independence. Louis XVI French king executed during the Revolution. Napoleon Bonaparte Rose to power after the French Revolution. Simón Bolívar Helped liberate Venezuela and other nations. José de San Martín Helped free South American countries from Spain. Toussaint Louverture Led Haitian independence movement. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Who fought for Venezuela’s independence? Simón Bolívar Why were the Articles of Confederation replaced? The national government was too weak. ⸻ CHAPTER 25 — INDUSTRIALIZATION, NATIONALISM & IMPERIALISM Section 1 — Industrial Revolution Key Vocabulary Industrialize Develop factories and machines. Urbanization Growth of cities. Labor Union Workers organized for better conditions. Push-Pull Factor Reasons people leave or move to places. Socialism Government control of economy to help society. Communism Classless society where property is shared. Woman Suffrage Women’s right to vote. ⸻ Important People Eli Whitney Invented the cotton gin. Karl Marx Created communist ideas. Ellis Island Main immigration station in the U.S. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Three ways Industrial Revolution changed society • More factories • Urbanization • Faster transportation • More goods produced • Growth of middle class Push factors affecting immigration • Poverty • Famine • War • Lack of jobs ⸻ Section 2 — Nationalism Around the World Key Vocabulary Nationalism Strong pride and loyalty to one’s nation. Nation-State Country with one national identity. Militarism Building up armed forces. Republic Government where citizens elect leaders. Dictator Leader with total control. ⸻ Important People Otto von Bismarck Unified Germany under Prussian leadership. Giuseppe Garibaldi Helped unify Italy. Meiji Emperor Led modernization of Japan. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Problems after Latin American independence • Political instability • Weak economies • Dictatorships • Social inequality Who unified Germany? Otto von Bismarck How did the Meiji Restoration transform Japan? • Modern industry • Modern military • Western education and technology ⸻ Section 3 — The New Imperialism Key Vocabulary Imperialism Strong nations taking control of weaker regions. Direct Rule Foreign country controls government directly. Missionary Person spreading religion. Sepoy Indian soldier serving Britain. Raj British rule in India. ⸻ Important Places & Events Berlin Conference European nations divided Africa. East India Company Controlled trade and territory in India. French Indochina French-controlled region in Asia. ⸻ CHAPTER 26 — WORLD AT WAR Section 1 — World at War Key Vocabulary Alliance Agreement between countries for support. Stalemate No side can win. Trench Warfare Fighting from dug trenches. U-boat German submarine. Bolsheviks Russian revolutionary communist group. Treaty of Versailles Treaty ending WWI. Triple Alliance Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. Triple Entente Britain, France, Russia. League of Nations International peace organization after WWI. ⸻ Important People Vladimir Lenin Leader of Bolsheviks. Karl Marx Inspired communist beliefs. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts What triggered WWI? Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Immediate effect of WWI on Russia Economic hardship and revolution. Why was WWI a total war? Entire economies and civilians supported the war effort. How did Bolsheviks change Russia’s war policy? Russia withdrew from WWI. Trench warfare resulted from what technology? Machine guns and modern artillery. ⸻ Section 2 — Between the Wars Key Vocabulary Fascism Dictatorship emphasizing nationalism and obedience. Propaganda Biased information used to influence people. Reparations Payments for war damages. Totalitarian Government with total control. Inflation Rising prices and weaker money value. ⸻ Important People Adolf Hitler Leader of Nazi Germany. Benito Mussolini Leader of Fascist Italy. Franklin D. Roosevelt Led U.S. during Great Depression and WWII. Joseph Stalin Communist dictator of USSR. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Conditions caused by Great Depression • Unemployment • Poverty • Bank failures • Economic collapse What kind of dictatorships did Hitler and Mussolini create? Fascist dictatorships. ⸻ Section 3 — World War II Key Vocabulary Appeasement Giving in to avoid conflict. Blitzkrieg “Lightning war” using fast attacks. Genocide Deliberate killing of a people group. Holocaust Murder of six million Jews during WWII. Ration Limit supplies during wartime. Atomic Bomb Extremely powerful nuclear weapon. ⸻ Important Places & People Pearl Harbor Japanese attack brought U.S. into WWII. Hiroshima First atomic bomb dropped. Nagasaki Second atomic bomb dropped. Winston Churchill Led Britain during WWII. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Which event broke German defenses in the west? D-Day invasion (Normandy invasion)

The 13 Colonies Unit Review

PRE-IB Chemistry Notes (based on your test) 1. Molecular Formula English A molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms in a molecule. Example: * H₂O = 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom * C₆H₁₂O₆ = 6 carbon, 12 hydrogen, 6 oxygen Important * Molecular formula = actual number * Empirical formula = simplest ratio Example: * Molecular formula: C₆H₁₂O₆ * Empirical formula: CH₂O Test question “What information does the molecular formula provide?” Correct answer: ✅ The actual numbers of atoms in a molecule ⸻ Русский Молекулярная формула показывает настоящее количество атомов в молекуле. Пример: * H₂O = 2 атома водорода и 1 атом кислорода * C₆H₁₂O₆ = 6 углеродов, 12 водородов, 6 кислородов Важно * Molecular formula = настоящее количество * Empirical formula = простое соотношение ⸻ 2. Isotopes English Isotopes are atoms of the same element with: * same number of protons * different number of neutrons Example: * Carbon-12 * Carbon-14 Both have: * 6 protons But different neutrons. Formula Neutrons = mass number − atomic number ⸻ Русский Изотопы — это атомы одного элемента: * одинаковое количество протонов * разное количество нейтронов Формула: Нейтроны = массовое число − атомный номер ⸻ 3. Protons, Neutrons and Electrons English Proton number = atomic number Electron number Neutral atom: electrons = protons Ion: * positive ion → lost electrons * negative ion → gained electrons Example ^{43}_{20}Ca^{2+} * protons = 20 * neutrons = 43 − 20 = 23 * electrons = 20 − 2 = 18 ⸻ Русский Протоны = атомный номер Электроны У нейтрального атома: электроны = протоны Ион: * плюс → потерял электроны * минус → получил электроны Пример: Ca²⁺: * 20 протонов * 23 нейтрона * 18 электронов ⸻ 4. Electron Configuration English Electrons fill shells. Rules * 1st shell = 2 electrons * 2nd shell = 8 * 3rd shell = 8 Examples Mg (12): 2,8,2 Cl (17): 2,8,7 Al (13): 2,8,3 Outer shell electrons Mg → 2 Cl → 7 ⸻ Русский Электроны распределяются по оболочкам. Примеры: * Mg = 2,8,2 * Cl = 2,8,7 * Al = 2,8,3 Внешние электроны: * Mg → 2 * Cl → 7 ⸻ 5. Ionic Bonding English Ionic bonding happens when electrons are transferred. * metals lose electrons * non-metals gain electrons Example: Mg + Cl Mg loses 2 electrons. Each chlorine gains 1. Formula: MgCl₂ ⸻ Русский Ионная связь появляется, когда электроны переходят от одного атома к другому. * металл теряет электроны * неметалл получает Пример: MgCl₂ ⸻ 6. Relative Atomic Mass and Relative Formula Mass English Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) Average mass of atoms compared with carbon-12. Example: Cl = 35.5 Relative Formula Mass (Mr) Total of all atomic masses in a formula. Example: H₂O = 2(1) + 16 = 18 ⸻ Русский Relative Atomic Mass Средняя масса атомов элемента. Relative Formula Mass Сумма всех атомных масс в формуле. Пример: H₂O = 18 ⸻ 7. Moles English Formula triangle n=\frac{m}{M} n = moles m = mass M = molar mass Example NaCl: M = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 If mass = 117 g 117 ÷ 58.5 = 2 mol ⸻ Русский Формула: n = m / M n — моли m — масса M — молярная масса ⸻ 8. Concentration English Formula: c=\frac{n}{V} c = concentration n = moles V = volume in dm³ Important 1000 cm³ = 1 dm³ ⸻ Русский Формула: c = n / V V обязательно в dm³ 1000 cm³ = 1 dm³ ⸻ 9. Acids and Alkalis English Acid Produces H⁺ ions Alkali Produces OH⁻ ions Examples: * HCl = acid * NaOH = alkali ⸻ Русский Кислота выделяет H⁺ Щёлочь выделяет OH⁻ ⸻ 10. Strong and Weak Acids English Strong acid Fully ionizes in water. Example: HCl Weak acid Partially ionizes. Example: CH₃COOH Important Strong ≠ concentrated ⸻ Русский Сильная кислота полностью распадается. Слабая — только частично. ⸻ 11. Amphoteric Compounds English Amphoteric substances can act as: * acid * base Example: Al₂O₃ ⸻ Русский Амфотерные вещества могут быть: * кислотой * основанием ⸻ 12. pH and Indicators English pH scale * below 7 = acid * 7 = neutral * above 7 = alkali Indicators Litmus: * acid → red * alkali → blue Phenolphthalein: * acid → colorless * alkali → pink ⸻ Русский pH: * меньше 7 = кислота * 7 = нейтрально * больше 7 = щёлочь ⸻ 13. Acid-Base Titration English Titration is used to find concentration. Steps 1. Add indicator 2. Add acid/base slowly 3. Endpoint color change 4. Use formula Common indicators * phenolphthalein * methyl orange ⸻ Русский Титрование используют для нахождения концентрации. Шаги: 1. Добавить индикатор 2. Медленно добавлять раствор 3. Смотреть изменение цвета ⸻ 14. Redox Reactions English Oxidation Loss of electrons Reduction Gain of electrons OIL RIG: * Oxidation Is Loss * Reduction Is Gain ⸻ Русский Окисление = потеря электронов Восстановление = получение электронов ⸻ 15. Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic English Hydrophobic “Water-fearing” Does not mix with water. Example: oil Hydrophilic “Water-loving” Mixes with water. Example: salt ⸻ Русский Hydrophobic: не смешивается с водой Hydrophilic: смешивается с водой ⸻ 16. Organic Chemistry Naming (IMPORTANT FOR TEST) English Alkane Only single bonds General formula: C_nH_{2n+2} Alkene Contains double bond General formula: C_nH_{2n} Alkyne Contains triple bond General formula: C_nH_{2n-2} ⸻ Русский Алкан: только одинарные связи Алкен: двойная связь Алкин: тройная связь ⸻ 17. IUPAC Naming Quick Rules English Step 1 Find longest chain. Step 2 Count carbons: * meth = 1 * eth = 2 * prop = 3 * but = 4 * pent = 5 * hex = 6 Step 3 Find double bond. Step 4 Number chain from nearest double bond. Step 5 Name branches: * methyl * ethyl ⸻ Русский 1. Найти самую длинную цепь 2. Посчитать углероды 3. Найти двойную связь 4. Нумеровать с ближайшей двойной связи 5. Назвать ответвления ⸻ 18. Combustion English Combustion = burning in oxygen. Example: C_5H_{12}+8O_2\rightarrow5CO_2+6H_2O Products: * carbon dioxide * water ⸻ Русский Горение — реакция с кислородом. Продукты: * CO₂ * H₂O ⸻ 19. Activity Series English More reactive metals replace less reactive metals. Mg is more reactive than H: → reacts with acid Cu is less reactive than Fe: → cannot replace Fe ⸻ Русский Более активный металл вытесняет менее активный

Los Colores

European Colonization: Causes, Effects, and Key Terms in the Americas

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exam 3 codon - biol 383

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