examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions
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Aristotle
knowledge comes from observation, it is not innate
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Descartes
mind distinct from the body, dualism
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Francis Bacon
experiment, experience, empiricism
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John Locke
mind at birth is a tabula rasa (blank slate) on which experience writes
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Empiricism
the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge
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Wilhelm Wundt
established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany
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structuralism
Wundt and Titchener’s thought that used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
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introspection
process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one’s own psychological processes
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Titchener
introduced structuralism to study elements of the mind, used introspection
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Darwin
natural selection of mental and physical traits, adaptive evolution, influenced William James
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William James
wrote Principles of Psychology, believed thinking was adaptive and helped in survival
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consciousness
helps to consider past, adjust to present, and plan future
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functionalism
explored how mental and behavioral processes function, how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
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behaviorism
study of observable behavior
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behaviorism view
view that psychology should be objective and study behavior without references to mental processes
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B.F. Skinner
leading behaviorist, rejected introspection and studied how consequences shaped behavior
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Freudian psychology
emphasized the ways our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect our behavior and mental processes
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Sigmund Freud
personality theorist and therapist who focused on unconscious sexual conflicts and the mind’s defenses (psychoanalysis)
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humanistic
emphasized human growth potential, believed that people were essentially good and unique, often considered a third force in psychology and rejected both behaviorism and psychoanalytic psychology
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Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow
led the humanistic psychology study
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cognitive psychology
study of mental processes, such as when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems
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psychology
science of behavior and mental processes of humans and other animals
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cognitive neuroscience
interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with cognition (perception, thinking, memory, language)
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nature vs. nurture
longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors
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nature
innate or inborn
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nurture
experience or environment
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natural selection
the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
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evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
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behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior, twin studies provide evidence for the relative influence of nature and nurture
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culture
enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
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gender
socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female
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positive psychology
the scientific study of human flourishing with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
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biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological and social cultural viewpoints
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cognitive approach
interpretations of situations and mental processes and how they impact behavior
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evolutionary perspective
natural selection of traits
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humanistic
personal growth and self-actualization
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behavioral psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning
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biological psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes
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psychodynamic
branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders
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social-cultural psychology
the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
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psychometrics
study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
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basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
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applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems, real world application
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developmental psychology
studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan
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educational psychology
study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
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personality psychology
study of individuals characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting
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social psychology
scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
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industrial-organizational psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
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human factors psychology
a field of psychology allied with I/O psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
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counseling psychologists
assists people with problems in living and in achieving greater well-being
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clinical psychology
branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders (phd or psyd)
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psychiatry
medicine dealing with psychological disorders practiced by physicians who are licensed to provide medical as well as psychological therapy (md)
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community psychologists
studies how people react to their environment and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
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cognitive psychologists
study human thinking and may work in academia or corporate
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developmental psychologists
study our behavior changes as we age
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educational psychologists
research issues related to teaching or learning
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experimental psychologists
experiments to understand behaviors and mental processes
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psychometric/quantitative psychologists
use math/stats to create, administer, score and interpret tests….intelligence and/or personality
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social psychologists
study interactions with others and how groups impact us individually
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forensic psychologists
apply psychological principles to legal issues
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rehabilitation psychologists
help individuals who have lost function after an accident/illness
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school psychologists
assessment and intervention for children in educational settings
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sport psychologists
help to improve performance
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counseling psychologists
guide people toward healthier relationships, overcome anxiety and depression, cope with difficulties
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clinical psychologists
assess and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders, administer and interpret psychological testing, therapy and counseling, may conduct research
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community psychologists
work together with larger groups and communities and focusing on crisis management
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hindsight bias
tendency to believe that we would have foreseen an outcome after learning what it was
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overconfidence
the tendency to think more than we do
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perceive order in random events
In trying to make sense of an unpredictable world, we are prone to perceive patterns; in other words, we ______________________
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hindsight bias, overconfidence, eagerness
_____________,__ _____________,__ and our _________ to perceive patterns in random events, lead us to overestimate the weight of common sense thinking
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scientific inquiry
_________ can help us overcome such biases and shortcomings
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scientific method
a self-correcting process using observation and analysis to evaluate
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theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organize observations and predicts behaviors or events using observations to explain behavior
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hypothesis
a testable prediction often implied by a theory, predictions about a behavior that can be tested
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support our theory or lead us to revise or reject
Research will either ___________________
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operational definition
a carefully worded statement of exact procedures used in research study
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replication
repeat the experiment precisely, confirmation
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case study
descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
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examination of rare, large qualitative data, directions for further study
strength of case study
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can be misleading, isn’t generalizable, cause and effect can’t be determined
limitation of case study
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naturalistic observation
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without control or manipulation
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subjects behave normally outside of a lab setting, data collection is unobtrusive
strengths of naturalistic observation
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independent variable can’t be isolated, cause and effect can’t be determined, observations are subjective
limitations of naturalistic observation
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surveys
descriptive technique for obtaining self reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of group
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able to take a quick pulse of people’s beliefs/behaviors/opinions, able to include many cases
strength of survey
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response bias, wording effects skew outcomes, acquiring a random sample is hard, cause and effect can’t be determined
limitation of survey
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representative sample
has the same distribution of population demographic qualities in it as the population as a whole
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random sample
sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
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CED
applying basic descriptive statistical concepts, including interpreting and constructing graphs and calculating simple descriptive statistics
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illusory correlation
perceiving a relationship where none exists or perceiving a stronger than actual relationship
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regression to the mean
the tendency for extreme scores or events to fall back toward the mean
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random assignment
assigning the participants to the experimental or control group by chance, equalizes experiment groups
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confounding variable
a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results
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descriptive
observe and record behavior, uses case studies, naturalistic observation, or surveys
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correlational
to detect naturally occurring relationship; to assess how well one variable predicts another, collects data on two or more variables; no manipulation- cannot specify cause and effect
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experimental
to explore cause and effect- manipulates one or more factors, uses random assignment, manipulates the independent variable, sometimes not feasible, results may not generalize to other contexts, not ethical to manipulate certain variables
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neuron
nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system
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cell body
cell’s life support center (soma), contains the nucleus
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dendrites
receives messages from other cells, bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body