final bio part I

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Life begins with…
a complete genome
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Human genome project (1990-2003)
Determined complete nucletide sequence of each chromosome
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complete nucleotide sequence
Chimpanzee

Corn

E. coli

Fruit fly

Bovine
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Mg
megabase=millon base pairs
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Genome
the entire set of DNA from an organism
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Gene density
number of found along a Mb stretch of DNA
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Eukaryotes have larger genomes than prokaryotes
Eukaryotes have more genes than prokaryotes
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Within eukaryotes
\-no systematic relationship b/w genome size & phenotype



\-no crrelation between number of genes and genome size
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Humans genes and genome
50k-100k predicted

3000 Mb genome (3Gb)
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large multicellular eukaryotes genomes have
lower gene density
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Have lowest gene density
humans and other mammals
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genome for humans
15 genes/Mb in 3000 Mb genome for humans
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genome for C- elegans
200 genes/ Mb in 100 Mb genome for C. elegans
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Due alternative splicing of RNA transcripts
Eukaryotes can produce more than one protein per gene
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The BEST at alternative splicing
VERTEBRATES
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exons
1\.5% encoding regions for proteins, rRNA, tRNA
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regulatory sequences
5%
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introns-non coding elements
20%

makes our genes larger
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intergenetic repetitive DNA
45% makes our GENOME larger
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transposable genetic element
75%
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large segment duplications
6%

make our GENOME larger
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44% of human genome
intergenitc (between genes) repetitive DNA
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75% of intergentic repetitive DNA is made of
transposable elements

transposons

retrrotraposons
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how do genetic modifications occur?
Rearrangement of genes

Duplication of genes

Mutuation of genes
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2 types of mobile genetic elements
are common mechanism of genetic modification
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Barbara McClintock
corn
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Transposons
mobile genetic elements

DNA can be moved around the genome by 2 methods
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Leaves a copy of DNA at original site
Copy & paste
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No copy of DNA left at original site
Cut & Paste
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Transpons happend via transponsase encoded in transposon region
DNA to DNA movement
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Most common mobile genetic elements
Retrotransposons
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Retrotransposons
RNA intermediate is key
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Rerverse transcriptase is encoded in retrotransposons
Retransposons
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New copy is inserted in novel location in genome
Retrotransposons
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Original copy remains

Copy and paste method through RNA intermediate
Retrotrransposons
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Plants with very large genomes, more transposable elements; NOT genes
Barbara Mcclintock
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We would not know BArbara
if Barbara studied rice

Nobody believed her until the same thing was described in bacteria
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descent with modification
Evolution
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Many species were descedants of ancestral species very different from those alive today
Darwin proposed
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Changes in genetic composition of a population over time
Evolution
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Scala Naturae

Ladder of creation

Perfect & permanent

NO evolution
Aristotle
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Father of Taxonomy

Linnaean Taxonomy

Binominal nomenclature

Genus species

NO evolution

Species divinely created

Perfect & PERMANENT

“nested classification”
Carl von Linne

Carolus Linnaeus
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know for his mistake!

Evolutionary Theory

Driven by NEED

Mechanismo= Inherit ACQUIRED characteristics
De Lammarck
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ACCQUIRED TRAIT
the change is not written in the genome
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HERITABLE TRAITS
traits carried in the genome heritable traits can be passed on to future generations
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Father Paleontology = study fossils
Cuvier
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Examined strata (layers of sedimentary rock)

Observed older fossils=more dissimilar form modern
Cuvier
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Established extinctions as a phenomena
Cuvier
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Catastrophism as mechanism of evolution

(floods, draught)

Only way to evolve is through disaster/ disturbance
Cuvier
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2 Important influences on Darwin
James Hutton

Charles Lyell
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Theory of Gradualism

Profund geologic changes were cumulative

slow and continous process
James Hutton
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Geologist

Theory of UNIFORMITARIANISM

geologic processes had not changed throught Earth´s history
Charles Lyell
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Corn genome has 85%
transposable elements
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Based on Hutton and Lyell´s theories, Darwin surmised…
If geologic changes are the result of slow, continuous change, Earth is older than theologians infer.

\
Slow, subtle, processes presisting for long periods could also act on organism, producing, substantial changes over time.
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Father of biogeography

sent Darwin his theory

share credit for similar theories

Darwin was more complete

Natural Selection as mechanism of evolution
A. R. Wallace
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Was introudced as mechanism of evolution
Natural Selection
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Mechanism of evolution
Natural Selection
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Process in which individuals have certain heritable traits survive and reproduce at higher rate than other individuals becuase of those traits.
Natural selection
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Increase the match between organisms and their environment
natural selection over time
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enviroment changes
individuals move to a new environment.
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will result in adaptation to these new conditions, sometime giving rise to new species in the process
natural selection
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Individuals do NOT evolve,
POPULATIONS do. A population is the smallest group that can evolve over time
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Can act only on heritable traits
natural selction
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is favorable in one environment may be useless or even detrimential in another environment
A trait
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Organism no longer match
because of climate change: BAD
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Supported by an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence
EVOLUTION
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4 documentation of evolution

1. Direct observation of naturla selection
2. Fossil Record
3. Homology
4. Biogeography
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Soapberry bug beak length

Based on foof they consume
Direct observation
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Editing mechanism

Selects favorable traits
Natural selection
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Traits adapative in one environmetn may be detrimental in another
Natural selection
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Similarity in characteristic traits from common ancestry

(mammalian forelimb skeletal structure)
Homology
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Similarity in chatacteristic traits from common ancestry

May only found during DEVELOPMENT
4 key CHORDATA characteristics:

post-anal tail

pharyngeal archeas

norchord

Dorsal hollow nerve cord
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Trace limb structure

Trace skull bones
Fossil Record
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The study of the geographic distribution of species

Camelids: continental drift is mechanism
Biogeography
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Individuals do not evolve
Populations do
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Favored larged break size present in individuals
Natural selection
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each finch started and ended drought with original beak size
average beak size of finch population increase
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natural selection favored larger beak size present in individuals
smaller beaked finches died;

larged beaked finches lived
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individual finches
didn´t evolve
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a change in allele frequencies in a population overtime
microevolution
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Natural selection

Genetic Drift (change mutation events)

Gene flow (transfer of individual into/out of population
3 mechanism causes microevolution to happen
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only mechanism of ADAPTIVE evolution
natural selection

it improve the match between organism and environment
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Evolution is possible
because of genetic variation
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differences among individuals in DNA composition

Usually revealed as a phenotypic variation
Genetic variation
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new genes and new alleles originate…
only by MUTATION
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genetic code for protein
gene
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location of gene on chromosome
locus
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same gene/ different sequences
alleles
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1 from each parent
homologoues chromosomes
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same

\
same size

same shape

carry same genes for same traits
homologous chromosomes
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different alleles

diferent sequence for gene
Homologous chromosomes
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Ocurrs during crossovers, forms new allele combinations

Sister chromatids no longer identical
recombination
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Gametes with new gene combinations are produced
Recombination

genetic variation via meiosis
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Genetic variation that evolution depends on has various origins
mutation

gene duplication

sexual reproduction
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ultimate source of new alleles
mutation
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can cause change in the nucleotide sequence of organism´s DNA
mutation
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change of a single base in gene= sicle cell disease
point mutations
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can alter gene number or position (locus)
can be detrimential
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can be harmless
mutation