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Unit 3: Cellular Energetics
unit 3 - cellular energetics
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Biology
Cells
AP Biology
Unit 3: Cellular Energetics
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113 Terms
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1
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bioenergetics
the study of how energy from the sun is transformed into energy in living things
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first law of thermodynamics
energy can’t be created or destroyed // sum of energy in the universe is constant
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exergonic reaction
products have less energy than reactants; energy is given off
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endergonic reactions
require an input of energy; products have more energy than the reactants
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transition state
a high energy molecule that reactants must turn into before becoming products; difficult to achieve
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activation energy
certain amount of energy required to reach the transition state
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how does activation energy work
chemical bonds must be broken before new ones can form
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enzymes
biological catalysts that speed up reactions
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enzyme specificity
each enzyme catalyzes only one kind of reaction
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substrates
targeted molecules
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enzyme-substrate complex
enzymes make the transition state happen by helping substrates get into position
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active site
special region on the enzyme where substrates go
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how do the structures and active sites relate?
structure (shape and charge) must be compatible with active site of an enzymea
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what happens to an enzyme after a reaction
it’s released and goes back to its original state
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induced fit
enzyme has to slightly change its shape to fit the substrate
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cofactors
factors that sometimes help enzymes catalyze reactions
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conenzyme
a type of cofactor; organic molecule, inorganic molecule, ion
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what can affect an enzymatic reaction
temperature and pH
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what determines reaction speed
concentration of an enzyme and substrate
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at what temperature are enzymes denatured?
42 degrees celsius
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denatured
what happens when an enzyme is denatured by heat and isn’t able to catalyze reactions anymore
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what is the optimum temperature for most human enzymes to function
37 degrees celsius
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how does pH alter enzymes
hydrogen bonds are disrupted and structure is altered
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what is the optimum pH for most enzymes
7
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when there is a high concentration of substrates, what happens to a reaction?
initially speeds up, once all of the enzymes are bound to a substrate, reaction can’t speed up any longer
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saturation point
the point where all enzyme are bound to substrates
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how does a cell regulate enzyme activity
regulating conditions that influence enzyme shape
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allosteric sites
somewhere on the enzyme that substrates can bind to that isn’t the active site
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competitive inhibition
a substance binds to the active site in place of the substrate
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noncompetitive inhibitor
when an allosteric inhibitor binds to allosteric site
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what happens to ATP when a cell needs energy?
the third phosphate is broken off: ATP → ADP + P + energy
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how can endergonic reactions be powered
by organisms using exergonic processes that increase energy
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cellular respiration
breaking down sugar and making ATP
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photosynthesis
how autotrophs get sugar for ATP
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what was the earliest photosynthesis done by
prokaryotic cyanobacteria
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what is the formula for photosynthesis?
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
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what happens when light initially strikes a leaf
chlorophyll is activated, electrons are excited
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what happens after chlorophyll is activated
sends electrons down electron carriers, which makes ATP and NADPH
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What happens to ATP, NADPH, and CO2 during dark reactions
used to make carbs, H2O is split and O2 is released
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stroma
fluid filled region
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grana
structures in the chloroplasts that look like coin stacks
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thylakoids
individual discs within granum; have chlorophyll
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chlorophyll
light-absorbing pigment that drives photosynthesis
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thylakoid lumen
interior thylakoid
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what are the types of reaction centers
photosystem I and photosystem II
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photophosphorylation
when light is used to make ATP
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absorption spectrum
shows how well a certain pigment can absorb electromagnetic radiation
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what happens right after a leaf captures sunlight
energy is sent to P680 and forms active electrons
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what is P680
reaction center of PS II
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what is P700
reaction center of PS I
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photolysis
H2O is split into O2, H2, ions, electrons
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where do the electrons from photolysis go
replace missing ones in PS II and replenish those from the thylakoid
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what establishes a proton gradient in the ETC
H+ ions being pumped into thylakoid lumen as energized e- from PS II
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How is ATP produced during PS II
H+ ions move back into the stroma through ATP synthase
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where do e- go after leaving PS II
PS I; they’re passed through a second ETC
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when do e- stop on the second ETC
when they reach NADP+ to make NADPH
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cyclic electron flow
makes only ATP, no NADPH
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what mainly happens during the light independent reactions
use products of light reactions (NADPH and ATP) to make sugar
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carbon fixation
CO2 from air is converted into carbs
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where does carbon fixation occur?
stroma
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what is another term for dark reactions/light independent reactions?
Calvins cycle
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stomata
pores on the leaf that allow CO2 to enter the leaf, and O2 and H2O to exit
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what do plants do on hot and dry days to their stomata
close them to prevent water loss → limits CO2 access / reduces photosynthetic yield
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photorespiration
uses ATP and O2, produces more CO2, doesn’t make sugars
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what is the formula for cellular respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
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aerobic respiration
when ATP is made in the presence of O2
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anaerobic respiration
when ATP is made without O2
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what are the four stages of aerobic respiration
glycolysis, formation of acetyl-coA, krebs/citric acid cycle (CAC), oxidative phosphorylation
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pyruvic acid
3 C molecules that form when glucose (6C) splits, one glucose breaking down results in 2 pyruvic acid and 2 ATP
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how is ATp made in glycolysis
combining ADP and an inorganic phosphate (using an enzyme)
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how many NADH does glycolysis make?
2; comes from e- transfer to carrier NAD+ (turns to NADH)
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where does glycolysis occur
cytoplasm
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where does the formation of acetyl co-A occur?
mitochondrion
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what types of C molecules are present in the beginning of the formation of acetyl-coA
two 2-C molecules, extras left as CO2
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acetyl coA
2C molecule
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how many NADH are made for every initial glucose
2
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where does the kreb’s cycle occur
matrix of the mitochondria
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what happens to both acetyl-coA molecules as soon as they enter the Kreb’s cycle
turned into CO2
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electron transport chain
e- take energy from glucose and carry it with themthe
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at the start of oxidative phosphorylation, how many NADH, FADH2 have been produced?
10 NADH, 2 FADH2
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what do NADH and FADH do
shuttle e- to ETC → forms NAD+, FADH, can be reused
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electron transport chain
a series of protein carrier molecules embedded in cristae
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what is the final acceptor in the ETC
O2
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what happens when the e- get to the final acceptor
O2 + e- + H+ → H2O
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what would happen if there weren’t O2 in the ETC
e- wouldn’t move down it, shuts down electron transport
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chemiosmosis
H+ ions from original H atom are pumped across inner mitochondrial membrane from the matrix into inner membrane space; pumping/diffusion of ions
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when does chemiosmosis happen
at the same time as electron transport, uses energy released from ETC
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pH/proton gradient
caused by the pumping of H+ ions; difference of the concentration of H+ across a membrane
\
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what is the only way H+ ions diffuse across a membrane
ATP synthase
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oxidative phosphorylation
when e- are given up, it’s ‘oxidation’ and ADP is phosphorylated to make ADP
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what must be maintained about an enzyme
the tertiary shape
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negative control
not exposed to experimental treatment or any treatment known to have effect
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positive control
exposed to treatment that is known to have an affect / no exposed to experimental treatment
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controlled variable
aspects of an experiment that could be changed but aren’t intentionally
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what does a decrease in temperature do to reaction rate
slows it down; fewer enzyme-substrate collisions
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what is the only way reaction rate will stay constant
saturation levels are maintained
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how do cells manage energy resources
energy coupling; energy releasing processes drive energy storing processes
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what does it mean for pathways in biological systems to be sequential
product of one reaction can be a reactant in the next; allows for more controlled and efficient energy transfer
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where is chemical energy temporarily stored during light dependent reactions
NADPH
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what transfers stored chemical energy to power production of organic molecules in light dependent reactions
ATP and NADPH
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