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Urban transition
term referring to the trend of populations becoming more urban and less rural
Urban areas
places where large numbers of people live together in relatively dense settlements and work in nonagricultural jobs
Urban penalty
the human health problems associated with urban living
Slum (squatter settlement)
an urban area characterized by substandard housing, a lack of formal property ownership arrangements, inadequate urban services, and high rates of poverty
Bright lights syndrome
a perception that cities are places of greater opportunity, excitement, and freedom to pursue all aspects of life
Informal economy
small entrepreneurial ventures that operate beyond the reach of government regulation and taxation
Urban density
the number of residents per unit of space
Economies of scale
a situation in which the per capita cost for a service decreases because of the increasing scale of operations
Suburb
a district outside a city
Suburban sprawl
the spread of urban populations away from the centers of cities to widely dispersed areas that have relatively low population densities
Metropolitan area (metropolis)
a cluster of adjacent cities and suburbs
Megalopolis
a chain of roughly adjacent metropolitan areas
One-use zones
distinct zones that serve one particular purpose; examples: residential subdivisions, shopping centers, office parks, schools
Floor-to-area ratio (FAR)
a measurement that calculates the total floor space of building and area of land it is built upon
Redlining
when the FHA and the VA who guaranteed mortgages also produced maps ranking urban areas by loan security or risk; banks wouldn't take mortgages for the housing in the "risky" sectors
Planner's dilemma
the need (and difficulty) for a project to operate at both a local and a regional scale
Induced traffic
the increased traffic and congestion caused by adding lanes to existing roads and highways
Modal split
the percentage of travelers in an area using a particular type of transportation to get to work
Bus rapid transit
when the bus system is given dedicated lanes and traffic priority, providing faster and more successful transit for less cost
Mixed-use areas
area where a mixture of housing, shops, restaurants, grocery stores, offices, and public amenities are all within a half-mile of public transportation
Transit-orientated development (TOD)
a term for design strategies to integrate public transportation and land-use patterns in more sustainable and resilient ways
Pedestrian-oriented development (POD)
a term for design strategies to integrate pedestrian travel and land-use patterns in more sustainable and resilient ways
Green infrastructure
the wide variety of green spaces that can be incorporated into urban life
Hydrocarbons
materials made of strands of hydrogen and carbon molecules produced by ancient, photosynthetic organisms; Coal, oil, and gas
Coal
solid fossil fuel
Oil
liquid fossil fuel
Natural gas
gaseous fossil fuel
Oil and gas formation
Began forming hundreds of million years ago:- Mostly as plankton in oceans and lakes that died.- Were then buried by layers of sediment.- Failed to decompose completely.- Were subjected to extreme heat and pressure underground, which converted them into these two fossil fuels.
Coal formation
This fossil fuel is formed from ancient plants in tropical swamps that were buried and subjected to years of pressure.
Peat
a precursor to coal that is formed in northern and temperate wetlands; formerly dried and used as a fuel
Reserves
the known masses of coal, oil deposits, and natural gas; known sources of a fossil fuel that can be economically accessed with current technology at current prices
Conventional reserves
easily obtained deposits of fossil fuels; reserves in Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Russia
Unconventional reserves
difficult-to-extract deposits of fossil fuels; these are oil sands, oil shales, and other deposits of hydrocarbons that are expensive to extract
Mountaintop removal
a mining process commonly used to extract coal, where entire mountaintops are removed to scoop out the underlying resources (usually coal)
Primary extraction
the initial drilling and pumping of available oil
Secondary extraction
a pumping process where water is injected to increase pressure, forcing more oil to the surface
Tertiary extraction
another process where steam is injected to allow the oil to flow more easily into the well
Hydraulic fracturing (fracking)
a process of using a mixture of water, sand, and chemicals pumped at high pressure into an oil or gas well to fracture the rock and release the fuel locked up inside
Tar sands
loose-grained rock deposits which require the use of steam and direct heat application to separate the oil
Natural gas
_____________ _____ releases less carbon dioxide than oil and coal burning.
Carbon tax
a tax levied on fossil fuels in British Columbia, Canada in 2008; taxed private and commercial carbon emissions
Cap and trade
a system where a government sets an overall maximum allowable emissions standard (cap) and then creates a market that enables pollution allowances to be bought, sold, traded, or saved for the future
Carbon capture and storage (CCS)
a process that prevents CO2 emissions from escaping into the atmosphere by injecting them underground
Enhanced oil recovery (EOR)
a process where captured CO2 is condensed and pumped underground as a way to force more oil out of depleted wells
Power
the rate at which work is done
Human power
100 watts per person
Cattle power
300 watts per head
Inferior good
something consumed because people cannot afford what they prefer
Proven reserve
the amount of a resource that can be profitably accessed with current prices
Jevon's Paradox
a finding that efficiency gains in the use of a resource can lower the cost of that resource, which can cause consumption of the resource to rise
Public goods
items that cannot be profitably produced because it is difficult to exclude nonpaying customers from receiving the benefits
More
Coal pollutes much ____________ (more/less) than natural gas.
Wind turbines
machines that use flowing air over oceans and land masses to turn large blades that in turn power a generator and create electricity
Variable generation
a power source with generating capacity that changes according to the time of day, weather conditions, or other factors
Photovoltaic (PV) solar panel
a panel that produces an electric charge when it is exposed to sunlight
Concentrated solar thermal (CST) plant
a solar power technology that captures heat using huge mirrors to focus sunlight toward liquid-filled pipes or a centrally located "power tower"
Hydropower
power generated when water is used to spin turbines and generate electricity; the leading fossil fuel alternative
Nuclear power
power generated when the nuclei of atoms are split (fission), releasing a large amount of energy
Geothermal power
power generated by heat from below the Earth's surface
Biofuels
recently living matter or by-products of their decomposition used as an energy source
Ethanol
a type of biofuel made of alcohol produced by fermenting sugars such as corn or sugarcane and then blended with gasoline
Electric vehicle (EV)
a vehicle powered by an electric motor using a magnetic field to generation motion
Fuel cell
a device that creates an electric current by stripping electrons from hydrogen molecules
Cogeneration
combined heat and power systems that capture waste heat from power plants and use it as an additional source of heating and cooling
Chemical hazards
a chemical linked to immediate or delayed health effects after exposure
Biological hazards
an organic substance that poses a threat to health of living organisms
Toxins
poisonous substances that can cause illness or death
Environmental health
the assessment and control of the biological, chemical, and physical factors that affect our well-being
3 Branches of Environmental Health
epidemiology, toxicology, and environmental justice
Epidemiology
the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states and events in specific populations
Toxicology
study of negative health effects of substances on an organism
Environmental justice
the principle that no community should bear more environmental burdens or enjoy fewer environmental benefits than others
Pathogens
microorganisms that cause illness or infection when they take up residence in our bodies
Respiratory infection
an infectious disease affecting the lungs and airways; leading cause of sickness and death worldwide
Diarrheal disease
a disease caused by pathogens that affect the digestive tract; the second leading cause of death for children under 5 years of age
Blood-borne pathogen
an infectious microorganism in human blood that can cause disease in humans
Herd immunity
when members of a population are unlikely to become infected because most of the population is inoculated against the pathogen
Additive toxins
when the toxic impact is a sum of the effects of interacting chemicals
Synergistic toxins
when the toxic impact is greater than the sum of the effects of the interacting chemical
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
a gas released through the evaporation or incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and other organic chemicals; found in paints and nail polish
Persistence
the extent to which a chemical resists being broken down
Persistent organic pollutant (POP)
a chemical that is resistant to breakdown through chemical reactions, biological processes, or exposure to sunlight
Physical hazards
events or phenomena that cause harm to humans through physical damage; examples: wildfires, hurricanes
Geologic hazards
large-scale events that can cause tremendous damage
Landslides
geologic hazards where rock or other debris detaches from a slope and slides downhill
Earthquakes
powerful geologic hazards typically caused when parts of Earth's crust shift along faults
Tsunamis
powerful tidal waves that can flood coastal areas, and volcanoes can create lava and mud flow hazards
Radiation
a form of energy that travels through space and penetrates various materials
Ionizing radiation
a form of energy that can remove electrons from an atom
Radon
a naturally occurring cancer-causing radioactive gas found in rock, soil, and groundwater
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation
invisible UVA and UVB rays that are part of the energy that comes from the Sun; leading cause of skin cancer
Floods
when water inundates land that is normally dry, especially through intense rainfall and rapid snowmelt
Storm surge
an abnormal rise of marine waters generated by a storm over and above the predicted tide, can cause flooding
Heat waves
periods of extremely and usually high temperatures that last days or weeks and can be deadly
Droughts
prolonged periods of low precipitation and high evaporation rates that can lead to water shortages
Incentives
positive and negative signal that pulls us toward or pushes us away a certain choice or behavior
Hierarchy of needs
Abraham Maslow's model of how people prioritize needs and desires over others
Automatic thinking
an instantaneous cognitive system distinct from our slower conscious and more reflective ways of thinking
Status quo
the current situation
Loss averse
a bias whereby people prefer avoiding the loss of something they already have more than they prefer acquiring an equivalent amount of that same thing
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