Biology 104 - Ecosphere at Crisis - Unit 4 Review

Urban transition

term referring to the trend of populations becoming more urban and less rural

Urban areas

places where large numbers of people live together in relatively dense settlements and work in nonagricultural jobs

Urban penalty

the human health problems associated with urban living

Slum (squatter settlement)

an urban area characterized by substandard housing, a lack of formal property ownership arrangements, inadequate urban services, and high rates of poverty

Bright lights syndrome

a perception that cities are places of greater opportunity, excitement, and freedom to pursue all aspects of life

Informal economy

small entrepreneurial ventures that operate beyond the reach of government regulation and taxation

Urban density

the number of residents per unit of space

Economies of scale

a situation in which the per capita cost for a service decreases because of the increasing scale of operations

Suburb

a district outside a city

Suburban sprawl

the spread of urban populations away from the centers of cities to widely dispersed areas that have relatively low population densities

Metropolitan area (metropolis)

a cluster of adjacent cities and suburbs

Megalopolis

a chain of roughly adjacent metropolitan areas

One-use zones

distinct zones that serve one particular purpose; examples: residential subdivisions, shopping centers, office parks, schools

Floor-to-area ratio (FAR)

a measurement that calculates the total floor space of building and area of land it is built upon

Redlining

when the FHA and the VA who guaranteed mortgages also produced maps ranking urban areas by loan security or risk; banks wouldn't take mortgages for the housing in the "risky" sectors

Planner's dilemma

the need (and difficulty) for a project to operate at both a local and a regional scale

Induced traffic

the increased traffic and congestion caused by adding lanes to existing roads and highways

Modal split

the percentage of travelers in an area using a particular type of transportation to get to work

Bus rapid transit

when the bus system is given dedicated lanes and traffic priority, providing faster and more successful transit for less cost

Mixed-use areas

area where a mixture of housing, shops, restaurants, grocery stores, offices, and public amenities are all within a half-mile of public transportation

Transit-orientated development (TOD)

a term for design strategies to integrate public transportation and land-use patterns in more sustainable and resilient ways

Pedestrian-oriented development (POD)

a term for design strategies to integrate pedestrian travel and land-use patterns in more sustainable and resilient ways

Green infrastructure

the wide variety of green spaces that can be incorporated into urban life

Hydrocarbons

materials made of strands of hydrogen and carbon molecules produced by ancient, photosynthetic organisms; Coal, oil, and gas

Coal

solid fossil fuel

Oil

liquid fossil fuel

Natural gas

gaseous fossil fuel

Oil and gas formation

- Began forming hundreds of million years ago:- Mostly as plankton in oceans and lakes that died.- Were then buried by layers of sediment.- Failed to decompose completely.- Were subjected to extreme heat and pressure underground, which converted them into these two fossil fuels.

Coal formation

This fossil fuel is formed from ancient plants in tropical swamps that were buried and subjected to years of pressure.

Peat

a precursor to coal that is formed in northern and temperate wetlands; formerly dried and used as a fuel

Reserves

the known masses of coal, oil deposits, and natural gas; known sources of a fossil fuel that can be economically accessed with current technology at current prices

Conventional reserves

easily obtained deposits of fossil fuels; reserves in Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Russia

Unconventional reserves

difficult-to-extract deposits of fossil fuels; these are oil sands, oil shales, and other deposits of hydrocarbons that are expensive to extract

Mountaintop removal

a mining process commonly used to extract coal, where entire mountaintops are removed to scoop out the underlying resources (usually coal)

Primary extraction

the initial drilling and pumping of available oil

Secondary extraction

a pumping process where water is injected to increase pressure, forcing more oil to the surface

Tertiary extraction

another process where steam is injected to allow the oil to flow more easily into the well

Hydraulic fracturing (fracking)

a process of using a mixture of water, sand, and chemicals pumped at high pressure into an oil or gas well to fracture the rock and release the fuel locked up inside

Tar sands

loose-grained rock deposits which require the use of steam and direct heat application to separate the oil

Natural gas

\_____________ _____ releases less carbon dioxide than oil and coal burning.

Carbon tax

a tax levied on fossil fuels in British Columbia, Canada in 2008; taxed private and commercial carbon emissions

Cap and trade

a system where a government sets an overall maximum allowable emissions standard (cap) and then creates a market that enables pollution allowances to be bought, sold, traded, or saved for the future

Carbon capture and storage (CCS)

a process that prevents CO2 emissions from escaping into the atmosphere by injecting them underground

Enhanced oil recovery (EOR)

a process where captured CO2 is condensed and pumped underground as a way to force more oil out of depleted wells

Power

the rate at which work is done

Human power

100 watts per person

Cattle power

300 watts per head

Inferior good

something consumed because people cannot afford what they prefer

Proven reserve

the amount of a resource that can be profitably accessed with current prices

Jevon's Paradox

a finding that efficiency gains in the use of a resource can lower the cost of that resource, which can cause consumption of the resource to rise

Public goods

items that cannot be profitably produced because it is difficult to exclude nonpaying customers from receiving the benefits

More

Coal pollutes much ____________ (more/less) than natural gas.

Wind turbines

machines that use flowing air over oceans and land masses to turn large blades that in turn power a generator and create electricity

Variable generation

a power source with generating capacity that changes according to the time of day, weather conditions, or other factors

Photovoltaic (PV) solar panel

a panel that produces an electric charge when it is exposed to sunlight

Concentrated solar thermal (CST) plant

a solar power technology that captures heat using huge mirrors to focus sunlight toward liquid-filled pipes or a centrally located "power tower"

Hydropower

power generated when water is used to spin turbines and generate electricity; the leading fossil fuel alternative

Nuclear power

power generated when the nuclei of atoms are split (fission), releasing a large amount of energy

Geothermal power

power generated by heat from below the Earth's surface

Biofuels

recently living matter or by-products of their decomposition used as an energy source

Ethanol

a type of biofuel made of alcohol produced by fermenting sugars such as corn or sugarcane and then blended with gasoline

Electric vehicle (EV)

a vehicle powered by an electric motor using a magnetic field to generation motion

Fuel cell

a device that creates an electric current by stripping electrons from hydrogen molecules

Cogeneration

combined heat and power systems that capture waste heat from power plants and use it as an additional source of heating and cooling

Chemical hazards

a chemical linked to immediate or delayed health effects after exposure

Biological hazards

an organic substance that poses a threat to health of living organisms

Toxins

poisonous substances that can cause illness or death

Environmental health

the assessment and control of the biological, chemical, and physical factors that affect our well-being

3 Branches of Environmental Health

epidemiology, toxicology, and environmental justice

Epidemiology

the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states and events in specific populations

Toxicology

study of negative health effects of substances on an organism

Environmental justice

the principle that no community should bear more environmental burdens or enjoy fewer environmental benefits than others

Pathogens

microorganisms that cause illness or infection when they take up residence in our bodies

Respiratory infection

an infectious disease affecting the lungs and airways; leading cause of sickness and death worldwide

Diarrheal disease

a disease caused by pathogens that affect the digestive tract; the second leading cause of death for children under 5 years of age

Blood-borne pathogen

an infectious microorganism in human blood that can cause disease in humans

Herd immunity

when members of a population are unlikely to become infected because most of the population is inoculated against the pathogen

Additive toxins

when the toxic impact is a sum of the effects of interacting chemicals

Synergistic toxins

when the toxic impact is greater than the sum of the effects of the interacting chemical

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

a gas released through the evaporation or incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and other organic chemicals; found in paints and nail polish

Persistence

the extent to which a chemical resists being broken down

Persistent organic pollutant (POP)

a chemical that is resistant to breakdown through chemical reactions, biological processes, or exposure to sunlight

Physical hazards

events or phenomena that cause harm to humans through physical damage; examples: wildfires, hurricanes

Geologic hazards

large-scale events that can cause tremendous damage

Landslides

geologic hazards where rock or other debris detaches from a slope and slides downhill

Earthquakes

powerful geologic hazards typically caused when parts of Earth's crust shift along faults

Tsunamis

powerful tidal waves that can flood coastal areas, and volcanoes can create lava and mud flow hazards

Radiation

a form of energy that travels through space and penetrates various materials

Ionizing radiation

a form of energy that can remove electrons from an atom

Radon

a naturally occurring cancer-causing radioactive gas found in rock, soil, and groundwater

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation

invisible UVA and UVB rays that are part of the energy that comes from the Sun; leading cause of skin cancer

Floods

when water inundates land that is normally dry, especially through intense rainfall and rapid snowmelt

Storm surge

an abnormal rise of marine waters generated by a storm over and above the predicted tide, can cause flooding

Heat waves

periods of extremely and usually high temperatures that last days or weeks and can be deadly

Droughts

prolonged periods of low precipitation and high evaporation rates that can lead to water shortages

Incentives

positive and negative signal that pulls us toward or pushes us away a certain choice or behavior

Hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow's model of how people prioritize needs and desires over others

Automatic thinking

an instantaneous cognitive system distinct from our slower conscious and more reflective ways of thinking

Status quo

the current situation

Loss averse

a bias whereby people prefer avoiding the loss of something they already have more than they prefer acquiring an equivalent amount of that same thing