Physical Development

what are the height gains in middle childhood?

2 inches per year

what are the weight gains in middle childhood?

5-7 pounds per year

boys will be bigger than girls until what ages?

9-10

by age 11 what differences in body composition do we see between boys and girls?

boys develop more muscle and girls more fatty tissue

at this time there are significant individual deviations in height and weight. How much can these two things vary and still be within a “normal” range?

vary by 6 inches or 30 pounds

what are growing pains?

muscles adjusting to growing skeleton, stretch and hurt

what are the gender similarities in physical growth do we see in early middle childhood?

there is a steady gain in height and weight, increase in muscular strength for both girls and boys during early middle childhood 

• relative proportion of muscle and fatty tissue ab the same 

later into middle childhood, what differences do we see between genders in physical growth?

boys develop more muscle tissue and females increase more fatty tissue; about age 10-13, girls are taller and heavier than boys; about 13, boys become taller and heavier than girls

why do boys have more muscle later on?

possibly bc they are more encouraged into physical activity while girls are discouraged

around what ages do we lose our baby teeth/ primary teeth and gain our adult teeth/ permanent teeth?

6-12 

how is myelination occuring during this time?

myelination of axons still happening. even tho the brain is already at most of its adult size, it continues to develop well into early adulthood (until around 25) 

new estimates say that it keeps developing forever - new axons being est even in late adulthood 

how does the brain develop in middle childhood?

frontal lobe - executive functions

• deployment of attention

• cognitive flexibility 

• goal setting 

• information processing 

• fluid reasoning

all of these tend to develop rapidly between ages 7 - 9 

what is cognitive flexibilty?

switch between thinking about two things, think about more than one thing at once ( so kind of the opposite of centration) 

what is goal setting?

set small goals to stay on task

what is information processing?

encoding, storage, retrieval

what is fluid reasoning?

reason and solve new problems

what is Myopia also referred to as?

nearsightedness - far objects are blurry and close are clear

_____ of US children in middle childhood have myopia

25%

_____ of US adults have myopia

60%

how is Myopia treated?

corrective lenses or contacts

which are more preferred and why, lenses or contacts (to treat myopia)?

contact lenses might be better for children - rate their own physical appearance, athletic competence, and social acceptance higher 

what do we see w ear infections and children in middle childhood?

number of children affected decreases during middle childhood

ear infections can lead to hearing loss and difficulty acquiring language 

coexists w headaches, hay fever, and asthma

children in middle childhood eat _____ than children in early childhood

more

how many calories are children consuming per day?

about 2,000 calories

why is there an increased calorie and food intake for children at this time?

to support the increased body weight and activity level

what are some issues with nutrition during middle childhood?

food offered to children in school - high in fat and sugar

increased food portions

fast food restaurants 

what is the relationship between social class and nutrition?

daughters at the poverty line were more likely to be fed diets high in fats and fast foods, less physical activity, more snack foods and sodas → more likely to be overweight

T or F: children outgrow “baby fat”

False, altho parents often assume that heavy children will "outgrow” their “baby fat”, most overweight children actually become overweight adults

______ percent of US children and adolescents are overweight or obese

16-25

most obese children become ______ adults

obese

obesity has _______ in the last 20 years

doubled

what are some physical problems associated with obesity?

high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, respiratory problems

what are some psychological problems associated with obesity?

depression, anxiety, poorer body image, rejected by peers

overweight children will be _____ healthy and have potentially ______ lives than their parents

less; shorter

are obesity rates uniform across different groups?

no, we see that african american girls and mexican american boys are particularly prone to obesity in early middle childhood

what are the causes of being overweight?

heredity

amount of fat cells 

hunger drive is connected to the quantity of what?

fat cells

more fat cells: will feel hunger sooner

many obese ppl are resistant to _____ and _____

lepin and insulin

how does insulin influence the feeling of hunger?

insulin, secreted by the pancreas, must be present for cells to use blood glucose. increase in insulin increases hunger

the mere sight and smell of food has been shown to increase insulin

insulin extracts _____ from the blood 

glucose

too much insulin leads to:

hunger

too little insulin leads to:

diabetes

how does leptin influence the feeling of hunger?

has been discovered to be released from fat cells into the bloodstream. Believed to signal the hypothalamus about fat stores in the body, causing decreases in hunger when fat stores are high

describe the leptin and weight-gain cycle

gain weight: as you gain more fat mass the number of fat cells increase, as do leptin levels

leptin resistance: as you increase fat stores and whole-body inflammation, your body develops leptin resistance 

disrupted signal: even tho you have an abundance of stored fat and leptin, the signal to your brain gets disrupted 

overeating: the brain senses low leptin levels, leading to food cravings and overeating 

increased calorie intake: even tho you increase calorie intake, you are continually hungry which leads to continued weight gain 

how does blood glucose play a role in weight gain?

when blood glucose goes down, hunger goes up

what is the glucostatic theory?

proposes that fluctuations in blood glucose levels are monitored in the brain by glucostats - neurons sensitive to glucose in the surrounding fluid. it appears likely that hunger is regulated, in part, thru glucostatic mechanisms 

What does ghrelin do?

causes stomach contracts to promote hunger

T of F: the typical American child is exposed to about 10,000 food commercials each year.

T 

the bulk of commercials that children are watching are for what?

fast foods, highly sweetened cereals, soft drinks, and candy bars 

T or F: caregivers are advised to discuss the problems created by fast-food commercials with children, just as they are encouraged to discuss the effects of media violence.

True 

what are some environmental factors that could contribute to a child becoming overweight?

obese parents may provide more sugary and fatty snacks, sodas, model poor physical activity, encourage more TV viewing, feed larger portion sizes 

how can increased TV screen time also increase a child’s chances of becoming obese?

1. consume snacks while watching 

2. watch commercials for fatty foods 

3. sedentary while watching

how can stressors cause children to become overweight?

parents fighting and/or divorce, birth of a sibling can cause anxiety and depression

• encourage to eat more bc makes you feel better

what is childhood asthma?

allergy-type respiratory disease

• spasms in the lungs, difficulty breathing, wheezing, coughing, tightness in chest 

• more common in affluent countries, but more serious in poorer nations ( up to almost 40% in poorest countries) - also more likely to be lethal in poor americans 

what are some risk factors of developing childhood asthma?

previous respiratory infections and skin irritations

other: male, oxygen after birth, antibiotics ( or mom used while pregnant)

family history of asthma 

lower SES 

what can we NOT use to predict the future development of childhood asthma?

• use of nasal steroids protective 

• breastfeeding protective 

• day care protective 

• pets in the home protective 

how is asthma treated?

nasal corticosteroids or other medicines to block reaction to allergens and open airways

parents advised to remove dust, dander, mites, and other sources or resp irritation from the home

gender differences in fine motor skills become more or less pronounced with age?

more pronounced 

children are not recommended to play separate sports until when?

adolescents 

motor skills are becoming ______ and more _________

smoother; coordinated

the development of fine motor movements is necessary to what and influenced by what?

necessary for wide range of school-related tasks

influenced by increase in amount of myelin → speeds up electrical impulses b/w neurons 

how do gross motor skills develop during middle childhood?

myelination AND experience improve these physical abilities 

increase in balance, coordination, and strength 

HUGE individual differences in these abilities by this time

what are some fine motor skills that children in middle childhood are able to do?

fasten buttons, zip zippers, brush teeth, wash themselves, cut their own food, use chopsticks 

what are gender similarities in motor development?

boys and girls perform similarly in most motor activities

physical activity decreases with age in both sexes 

what are some gender differences in motor development?

boys show slightly greater overall strength, esp. forearm strength (baseball)

boys are more encouraged in athletics, esp. after puberty 

girls show somewhat greater limb coordination and overall flexibility (gymnastics) 

T or F: most American children are physically fit

False; 2/3 american children do not meet the standards set by the President’s Council on Fitness, Sport and Nutrition

what are the reasons for a decline in fitness in children?

• watching tv: have more body fat and less physically fit

• sports: baseball, football, etc. are relatively inactive and don’t promote physical fitness. 

  • better to run, walk, swim, bicycle, jump rope, etc

what can be done to improve physical fitness?

encouragement to exercise

modeling of physical activity and exercise 

engage in family outdoor activities that promote fitness 

reduce time spent watching TV 

encourage outdoor play after school 

do not assume team sports provide sufficient exs. many team sports involve long periods of inactivity 

what is the prevalence of children ages 6-11 in the US with ADHD?

6.8% 

what percent of children have the combined type of ADHD?

2.9%

what percent of children have the inattentive/disorganized type of ADHD?

3.2%

what percent of children have the hyperactive-impulsive type of ADHD?

0.06%

across all subtypes, studies suggest that ____ of the US and _____ worldwide have ADHD

6-7%; 5%

ADHD is _______ common in boys than girls

more, 4-9 times more common in boys

what are the general guidelines used to diagnose ADHD?

impairment must occur in two or more settings

before age 12 (DSM-V) 

persist for at least 6 months 

what are the some of the symptoms that could be present and indicate inattentive/disorganized type of ADHD?

often fails to give close attention to details/careless mistakes

difficulty sustaining attention 

does not seem to listen when spoken to 

does not follow thru on instructions 

has difficulty organizing tasks or activities 

avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that req sustained mental effort 

often loses things necessary for tasks or activities 

is easily distracted by extraneous stimuli 

is often forgetful in daily activities 

how many symptoms must be present to diagnose a child with inattentive/disorganized ADHD

6 or more

what are the symptoms that could indicate a child have hyperactive-impulsive ADHD?

hyperactivity

• often fidgets 

• often leaves seat in the classroom, 

• often runs about or climbs excessively 

• often has difficulty playing quietly 

• is often “on the go” 

• talks excessively 

impulsivity 

• blurts out answers before questions have been completed 

• has difficulty awaiting turn 

• often interrupts or intrudes on others 

how many symptoms must be present to diagnose a child with hyperactive-impulsive type ADHD?

6 or more of these combined

what are the genetic influences on ADHD?

ADHD runs in families → 2-4 times increased risk among first-degree relatives

dopamine and serotonin levels in the brain 

what are the environmental risks and triggers for ADHD?

inadequate schooling, rapid societal tempo and family stress

ADHD is likely a combination of _______ and ____________ interaction.

gene and environment

• some environmental effects (pre and postnatal) may differentially activate genetic risk 

  • low brith weight,  toxins (cigarette and alcohol exposure), diet

what did the Feingold diet propose?

to remove artificial food colorings and food preservatives from food

small but measurable effect in reducing hyperactivity → may have small beneficial effect 

what are some other causes of ADHD?

coexists with other disorders

• anxiety, oppositional defiant disorder, mood disorders, ticks 

inefficient inhibitory processes 

• lack of executive control 

T or F: hyperactivity is caused by chemical food additives

False

what are the neural imaging finds of ppls brain structure that have ADHD?

5% reduction in overall brain volume

12% reduction in volume in frontal and subcortical structures 

what are the four main areas that are implicated in ADHD?

prefrontal cortex (attention; complex, planned bx)

• delay in peak thickness ( 3 years later)

basal ganglia/striatum (response control)

cerebellum (temporal information processing and motor control; smaller sizes have been associated with ADHD)

corpus callosum (integrating information for responding)

what are some empirical limitations on ADHD and brain structure findings?

small samples, varying methods, difficulties in imaging subcortical structures, shortage of theoretical, hypothesis-driven research, and inconsistent control for total brain volume

how do health professionals treat ADHD?

stimulants

how do the stimulant drugs help with ADHD?

block reuptake of dopamine and noradrenaline

• hyperactivity stems from inability of cerebral cortex to inhibit more primitive areas of the brain 

• stimulants increase activity in the cerebral cortex 

how do children with ADHD that are on stimulants behave?

increased attention span, improved cognitive and academic performance 

reduction in disruptive, annoying, and aggressive bx 

T or F: stimulants are often used to treat children who are already hyperactive

T

how do stimulants such as Ritalin influence brain activity?

increase activity in the nervous system and cerebral cortex so that it can better inhibit more primitive areas of the brain

why is the use of stimulants controversial?

may be that we give too big of a dose:

• may suppress growth

• it loses its effectiveness over time

low doses are just as effective in treating ADHD

what is cognitive behavioral therapy?

an alternative treatment to stimulants

• students who are taught to “stop and think” before giving into impulses do better 

• stimulants may be more effective, depending on age. kids tend to do better with medication; adolescents and adults with CBT 

T or F: some children “outgrow” ADHD

True, at least 2/3 exhibit one or more symptoms in adolescence and adulthood

what are learning disabilities?

characterized by inadequate development of specific academic, language and speech skills

• problems with reading, math, writing 

• difficulties with speaking or understanding speech 

• problems with motor coordination 

performs below expectations for age and intelligence 

• without evidence of other handicaps 

usually persists throughout life

T or F: some children who are intelligent and provided with enriched home environments cannot learn how to read or do simple math problems

True

_____ of US children have a learning disability

8%

LDs often are not detected in ______ children

gifted

→ not related to IQ