17. Cognitive Psych (Eyewitness Memory/Flashbulb & False Memories)

In the Loftus & Palmer (1974) study, what was the critical question asked to participants after they watched videos of a traffic accident?

“How fast were the cars going when they _________ at each other?”

What was the independent variable in the first Loftus & Palmer (1974) experiment on eyewitness memory?

The verb used in the critical question (smashed, collided, bumped, hit, contacted).

According to Loftus & Palmer (1974), which verb resulted in the highest average speed estimate (40.8 mph) for the car crash?

Smashed.

What did Loftus & Palmer's (1974) first experiment demonstrate about the effect of wording on memory?

How you word a question greatly impacts people’s speed estimates and memory for an event.

In the follow-up to the Loftus & Palmer (1974) study, what question were participants asked one week after viewing the car crash video?

“Did you see any broken glass?”

In Loftus & Palmer's (1974) follow-up study, what percentage of participants in the "smashed" group reported falsely remembering broken glass?

10%.

The results of Loftus & Palmer's (1974) follow-up experiment showed a higher rate of _____ for broken glass when more violent words were used.

False memories

What is the primary goal of an eyewitness identification line-up?

To identify the perpetrator of a crime.

What are the four possible outcomes of an eyewitness identification from a line-up?

Correct identification (hit), false identification (false alarm), correct rejection, and incorrect rejection.

In an eyewitness lineup, what occurs when the culprit is in the lineup and is selected by the witness?

Correct identification

In an eye witness lineup, what occurs when the culprit is in the lineup, but no one is selected by the witness?

Incorrect rejection

In an eyewitness lineup, what occurs when the culprit is not in the lineup, but the witness selects someone else?

False identification

What is feedback given to a witness that confirms their choice, such as “Good, you identified the subject.”?

Confirmatory feedback

What is the primary effect of confirmatory feedback on an eyewitness’s confidence?

It causes an increase in eyewitness confidence.

How does confirmatory feedback alter an eyewitness’s memory of the original event?

It can make them believe the original event was clearer or that they can make out more facial details than they actually could.

One way to improve eyewitness testimony in the courtroom is through ________ _________ ___________, where the person administering the lineup does not know who the suspect is.

Blind Line-Up Administration

What is a major benefit of using a blind line-up administration?

It reduces unintentional communication or cues from the administrator to the witness.

What instruction, crucial for reducing pressure on a witness, is reinforced by blind line-up procedures?

That the real perpetrator may not be in the lineup and the witness is not obligated to choose.

How should fillers (the non-suspects) in a police lineup be chosen to ensure fairness?

The actual suspect should not stand out relative to the alternative fillers.

Why is it important to create an objective and lasting record of the entire identification process?

To allow for later evaluation of the procedure, including instructions given, lineup fairness, and any feedback provided.

What is the collective name for the set of factors used to evaluate eyewitness identification, including opportunity to view and level of attention?

The Manson Criteria.

According to the Manson Criteria, what is one factor to consider regarding the witness's state during the crime?

Their level of attention.

According to the Manson Criteria, what factor relates to the timing between the crime and the identification?

The amount of time between the crime and the identification.

What is a primary criticism of using an eyewitness's 'amount of certainty' from the Manson Criteria to judge accuracy?

An eyewitness’s certainly is often uncorrelated with their accuracy.

Is cross-examination in court typically effective against mistaken eyewitness identifications?

No, it is not particularly effective against mistaken identifications.

What interview technique is designed to increase the amount of accurate information from a witness while minimizing errors?

The Cognitive Interview.

A key principle of the cognitive interview is an emphasis on the ________ of the witness, using open-ended questions and low pressure.

Comfort

What does the cognitive interview technique of ‘reinstate context’ involve?

Asking the witness to think about surrounding information from the event, like the setting or their feelings at the time.

What instruction is given to a witness during a cognitive interview to encourage recalling all details?

To report everything, even if they don’t think a detail is important.

How does the cognitive interview approach the chronological order of events?

It encourages the witness not to worry about recalling events in order and to try recalling them in reverse or from different starting points.

What does the ‘change perspective’ instruction in a cognitive interview ask the witness to do?

To try recalling the incident from a different perspective than their own (e.g., another witness’s point of view).

According to the study by Geiselman et al. (1985), how did the performance of witnesses who underwent a Cognitive Interview compare to those with a standard interview?

Participants in the cognitive interview group remembered more correct components from the violent crime video used for LA police training.

What are memories of personal experiences that collectively build our life story?

Autobiographical memories

Are autobiographical memories generally considered perfect and immune to forgetting?

No, they are imperfect, susceptible to forgetting, and can be distorted or completely false.

What is a vivid, detailed memory for the circumstances surrounding when you first heard a startling piece of news?

Flashbulb memories

What was the pivotal event that Brown & Kulik (1977) asked participants to recall in their initial study on flashbulb memories?

Learning about the assassination of John F. Kennedy (JFK).

What was the main conclusion of Brown & Kulik's (1977) original study on flashbulb memories?

That humans might have a special memory system for highly emotional and important events.

According to research, what type of information is commonly reported as part of a flashbulb memory?

Location, activity at the time, source of the news, emotional response, and immediate aftermath.

What two types of memories did Talarico & Rubin (2003) ask students to recall in their study following the 9/11 attacks?

Their memory of learning about the 9/11 attacks (a flashbulb memory) and an everyday memory from around the same time.

In the Talarico & Rubin (2003) study, how did the accuracy of flashbulb memories for 9/11 compare to everyday memories over time?

Flashbulb memories and everyday memories did not differ in accuracy; both were susceptible to forgetting and intrusions.

According to Talarico & Rubin (2003), how does our confidence in flashbulb memories compare to our confidence in everyday memories over time?

People remain highly confident in their flashbulb memories, while confidence in everyday memories may decline.

The key finding from Talarico & Rubin (2003) is that flashbulb memories are not necessarily more _____, but are held with much higher _____.

Accurate; confidence

What is a typical property of a flashbulb memory regarding its perceived quality?

It is remembered as being highly detailed and vivid.

Are flashbulb memories impervious to forgetting?

No, they are not impervious to forgetting, even though we often think they are.

What is one explanation for the vividness of flashbulb memories related to media and social factors?

There are multiple societal reminders and extensive media coverage about the event.

The process of frequently talking about or thinking about a major event, which strengthens the memory trace, is known as _________ _________.

Repeated rehearsal

What is the process by which memories of major events become more ‘story-like’ over time, which contributes to their vividness?

Narrative construction