A&P Exam 1a (Part 1)

x-ray/radiograph

x-ray/radiograph

detect bony/dense structures

darker structures on x ray

hollow air containing structures

lighter structures on x ray

dense bony/dense structures

CT/CAT

detailed cross sectional picture of each body region; most common for brain and abdomen

DSR

3D images of body organs + movements; most common for heart/blood movement

DSA

view of small arteries, before/after contrast medium; most common to view blockages

PET

observes metabolic process (w radioisotopes); most common to view brain activity

Sonography

sound waves that echo off body tissue; most common to view babies because of low penetrating power

MRI

images of soft tissues (maps hydrogen content); most common to view skull/vertebrae, tumors

MRS

maps distribution of other elements

Functional MRI

tracks blood flow in the brain in real time, targets smaller areas

Principle of complementarity of structure and function

what a structure can do based on its form

Four quadrants

right upper quadrants, right lower quadrant, left upper quadrant, left lower quadrant

Nine regions

right hypochondriac region, epigastric region, left hypochondriac region, right lumbar region, umbilical region, left lumber region, right illiac (inguinal) region, hypogastric region, left illiac (inguinal) region

Reference man

22 year old, 155 pounds

Reference woman

22 year old, 125 pounds

Integumentary System

forms external body covering and protects deeper tissues; contains receptors and glands

Musculoskeletal System

protects/supports body organs, helpful for movement, posture and heat retention

Lymphatic System

immune response and cleaning of blood fluid

Respiratory System

gas exchange; supply oxygen to blood and remove CO2

Digestive System

break down food into absorbable units, eliminate indigestible waste

Nervous System

control system; respond to external and internal stimuli

Endocrine System

hormone secretion to control growth, reproduction, and metabolism

Cardiovascular System

transport blood and nutrients (O2, CO2, and waste)

Urinary System

eliminate nitrogenous waste, regulate H2O/electrolytes/pH

Reproductive System

production of offspring, sex hormones, care of offspring

superior (cranial)

toward the head

inferior (caudal)

away from the head

anterior (ventral)

towards the front of the body

posterior (dorsal)

towards the back of the body

medial

toward the midline

lateral

away from the midline

intermediate

between a more medial and more lateral structure

proximal

closer to the point of attachment

distal

away from the point of attachment

superficial

toward the body surface, external

deep

away from the body surface, internal

mitochondria

ATP synthesis, powerhouse of the cell

ribosomes

protein synthesis

rough ER

sugar groups bound to proteins, proteins bound in vesicles and transported, synthesis of phospholipids

smooth ER

lipid/steroid synthesis, lipid metabolism, drug detoxification

golgi apparatus

packages, modifies, and segregates proteins

peroxisomes

enzymes used for detoxification (catalase breaks down hydrogen peroxide)

lysosomes

sites of intracellular digestion

microtubules

supports/shapes cell, involved with movement

intermediate filaments

stabilize cytoskeletal elements, resist mechanical forces

microfilaments

muscle contraction and movement, help form cytoskeleton

centrioles

organize microtubule network during mitosis to form spindles/asters, bases of cilia and flagella

cilia

movement via propelling current

flagella

propels cell

microvilli

increase surface area for absorption

nucleus

control center of the cell, transmission of genetic info and instructions for protein synthesis

nuclear envelope

separate nucleoplasm and cytoplasm, regulate passage to and from nucleus

nucleolus

ribosome synthesis

chromatin

DNA constitutes the genes

Body is cut into __ and each __ has __

planes, plane, sections

cellular respiration equation

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6H2O + 6CO2 + 32 ATP + heat

how many kcal/g in fat

9

how many kcal/g in carbs/protein

4

how many kcal/g in alcohol

7

how to calculate percent fat

(# g fat x 9 kcal/g)/#kcal

Melanin

polymer made of tyrosine amino acids; range from reddish yellow to brownish black

Carotene

yellow/orange pigment found in certain plant products; accumulates in the stratum corneum and fatty tissue of the hypodermis

Hemoglobin

helps provide the pinkish hue to the skin; oxygenated pigment

Examples of skin appendages

hair, hair follicles, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands

Redness/erythema

reddened skin may indicated embarrassment, fever, hypertension, inflammation, or allergy

Pallor/blanching

during fear, anger, and certain other types of emotional stress, some people become pale; could signify anemia or hypotension

Jaundice/yellow cast

abnormal yellow skin tone signifies liver disorder, in which yellow bile pigments accumulate in teh blood and are deposited in the body tissues

Bronzing

metallic appearance of the skin, sign of Addison’s disease in which the adrenal cortex produces an inadequate amount of steriod hormones; pituitary gland tumors (incorrect secretion of melanocyte-stimulating hormone - MSH)

Bruising

black and blue marks where blood escaped from circulation and clotted, hematomas

Alopecia

hairs are shed faster than they are replacedM

Male pattern baldness

genetically determined/sex-influenced, follicular growth cycles become so short that hair never emerge before shedding

Basal cell carcinoma

least malignant/most common, stratum basale cells proliferate, invading the dermis/hypodermis, cancer lesions mostly appear on sun exposed areas and are slow growing

Squamous cell carcinoma

second most common, cancer arises from the keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum and rapidly growing

Melanoma

cancer in melanocytes, highly metastatic/resistant to chemo

ABCD rule

asymmetry, border irregularity, color, diameter

burn

tissue damage inflicted by intense heat, electricity, radiation, or certain chemicals; cell protein denaturation and cell death

Rule of nines

rule used for estimating the severity of burns

What percentage is the anterior and posterior head and neck?

9%

What percentage is the anterior and posterior upper limbs

18%

What percentage is the anterior and posterior trunk?

36%

What percentage is the perineum?

1%

What percentage is the anterior and posterior lower limbs?

36%

First degree burns

damage to the epidermis

Second degree burns

damage to the epidermis and upper region of the dermis

Third degree burns

damage to the full/entire thickness of the skin

What are three reasons a burns could be considered critical?

25% of the body has a second-degree burn, 10% of the body has a third-degree burn, or third degree burns are on the face, hands, or feet

Hydrophobic

Water hating

Hydrophilic

Water loving

Phospholipids

polar head (hydrophilic) and 2 fatty acid chains (hydrophobic)

Functions of plasma membrane

mechanical barrier, selective permeability, electrochemical gradient, communication, and cell signaling

Plasma membrane

aka cell membrane, separates intracellular and extracellular fluid, and basic structure is made up of phospholipids

Peripheral protein

not imbedded in the lipid bilayer, loosely attached to integral proteins, enzymes, link cells together, motor protein-mechanical functions, network of filaments that support membrane from cytoplasmic side

extracellular matrix

substances contributing to body mass that are found outside the cell (body fluid/interstitual fluid, plasma, csf or cellular secretions)

fluid mosaic model

membrane structure that depicts plasma membrane, composed of bilayer lipid molecules with proteins dispersed in it, constantly changing

glycolipids

lipids with sugar groups, only in outer plasma membrane surface, 5% of membrane

integral proteins

firmly inserted in lipid bilayer, interact with polar/nonpolar because of hydrophobic/hydrophilic regions

cholesterol

20% of membrane lipids, polar and nonpolar regions, stabilizes membrane and decreases mobility of phospholipids/membrane

glycocalax

consists of glycoproteins and glycolipids that form a fuzzy, sticky, carb-rich area that is helpful for cell recognition