APUSH Period 6/7: American Imperialism (1890-1920)

Open Door Policy

A policy proposed by the United States in 1899 that sought to ensure equal trading rights for all nations in China while preventing any single power from controlling the country’s commerce. It was designed to protect American business interests without requiring military intervention. The policy also aimed to preserve China’s territorial integrity in response to European spheres of influence.

Issues in the Phillippines

After acquiring the Philippines from Spain in 1898, the U.S. faced a brutal and costly insurgency led by Filipino nationalists who opposed foreign rule. The Philippine-American War (1899–1902) resulted in high casualties and raised moral questions about American imperialism. Over time, policies such as the Jones Act (1916) promised eventual independence, though full sovereignty was not granted until 1946.

Differences between Manifest Destiny and Imperialism

While both concepts justified expansion, manifest destiny focused on territorial growth within North America (often at the expense of Native American lands), while imperialism involved extending influence overseas. Additionally, Manifest Destiny was driven by the idea that the U.S. was destined to spread democracy across the continent, whereas imperialism sought economic, political, and military dominance globally. The shift reflected America’s transition from continental expansion to becoming a world power.

US commercial expansion

The late 19th and early 20th centuries had increased efforts to secure foreign markets and raw materials for a growing industrial economy. Policies such as the Open Door Policy in China and control over territories like Hawaii and the Philippines ensured economic access abroad. These strategies fueled debates over the ethical and practical implications of expansion.

Platt Amendment

A law, passed in 1901 and superseding the Teller Amendment, which stipulated the conditions for the withdrawal of American forces from Cuba. It granted the U.S. the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and maintain a naval base at Guantanamo Bay and effectively limited Cuban sovereignty while securing American strategic and economic interests. The amendment remained in effect until its repeal in 1934.

Teller Amendment

A rider to the 1898 war resolution with Spain whereby Congress pledged that it did not intend to annex Cuba and that it would recognize Cuban independence from Spain.

McKinley’s foreign policy ideology and impacts of his policies

Expansionism & Benevolent Assimilation

Foreign Policy Ideology: He believed in expanding U.S. influence through military and economic means, particularly in the Pacific and Latin America. His policies aimed to establish the U.S. as a global power while promoting economic growth and trade.

Impact: McKinley’s presidency marked a turning point in U.S. foreign policy, transitioning from isolationism to imperialism. His policies laid the foundation for America’s long-term involvement in the Philippines and Asia.

Key policies and actions of McKinley

• Spanish-American War (1898): Led to the U.S. defeating Spain and acquiring Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines under the Treaty of Paris (1898).

• Annexation of Hawaii (1898): Officially brought Hawaii under U.S. control, securing its strategic value for trade and military purposes.

• Philippine-American War (1899–1902): Justified U.S. control over the Philippines using “Benevolent Assimilation,” claiming the U.S. would civilize and Christianize the Filipino people.

• Open Door Policy (1899): Ensured equal trade access to China for all foreign powers while maintaining Chinese territorial integrity.

Roosevelt’s foreign policy ideology and impacts of his policies

Big Stick Diplomacy

Foreign Policy Ideology: Roosevelt believed in an aggressive foreign policy backed by military strength, summarized by his phrase, “Speak softly and carry a big stick.” He emphasized America’s duty to act as a global police power, especially in Latin America.

Impact: Roosevelt’s policies strengthened U.S. influence in Latin America and the Pacific. His interventions, while expanding American power, also created tensions, particularly in Latin America, where U.S. control was often resented.

Key policies and actions of Roosevelt

• Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1904): Declared that the U.S. had the right to intervene in Latin American countries to prevent European interference, expanding U.S. influence in the Western Hemisphere.

• Panama Canal Project (1904–1914): Roosevelt supported Panama’s independence from Colombia and secured rights to build the Panama Canal, vital for U.S. naval and economic power.

• Great White Fleet (1907–1909): Sent a fleet of U.S. battleships around the world to showcase American naval power and deter potential threats.

• Mediation in the Russo-Japanese War (1905): Roosevelt negotiated the Treaty of Portsmouth, earning him the Nobel Peace Prize for his role in ending the conflict.

Taft’s foreign policy ideology and impacts of his policies

Dollar Diplomacy

Foreign Policy Ideology: Taft’s approach, known as Dollar Diplomacy, promoted economic investment and trade as the primary tools of foreign policy. He believed financial influence could achieve U.S. goals more effectively than military force.

Impact: While Taft’s policies expanded U.S. business influence, they often backfired, leading to increased resentment and instability in Latin America. The reliance on financial pressure rather than direct military intervention had mixed results.

Key policies and actions of Taft

• Economic Investments in Latin America & Asia: Encouraged U.S. businesses to invest in infrastructure projects, particularly in Honduras, Nicaragua, and China, to reduce European influence.

• Intervention in Nicaragua (1912): The U.S. sent troops to support a pro-American government and protect U.S. financial interests, highlighting the limits of economic diplomacy.

• Continued Support for the Panama Canal: Strengthened economic ties in Central America to secure trade routes.

Wilson’s foreign policy ideology and impacts of his policies

Moral Diplomacy

Foreign Policy Ideology: Wilson’s Moral Diplomacy aimed to promote democracy, human rights, and national self-determination while opposing imperialism. However, his actions sometimes contradicted his ideals, particularly in Latin America.

Impact: Wilson’s foreign policy reshaped America’s global role, positioning the U.S. as a defender of democracy. However, his interventions in Latin America contradicted his ideals, and his failure to secure U.S. membership in the League of Nations limited his long-term influence.

Key policies and actions of Wilson

• Mexican Revolution Intervention (1914–1917): Wilson opposed the dictatorship of Victoriano Huerta and supported democratic reforms but later sent troops to occupy Veracruz. He also launched an unsuccessful military expedition against Pancho Villa.

• U.S. Occupations in Haiti & Dominican Republic (1915–1916): Despite promoting democracy, Wilson sent troops to maintain stability and protect American interests in the Caribbean.

• World War I Neutrality (1914–1917): Initially kept the U.S. out of WWI but later joined after repeated German submarine attacks and the Zimmermann Telegram.

• Fourteen Points (1918): A vision for postwar peace that promoted self-determination, free trade, and the League of Nations.

• Treaty of Versailles & League of Nations (1919): Advocated for international cooperation but failed to gain U.S. Senate approval, keeping America out of the League.

Alaska Purchase

In 1867, the United States acquired this vast northern territory from Russia for $7.2 million, a deal initially mocked as "Seward’s Folly." The region later proved valuable due to its rich natural resources, including gold and oil. This acquisition marked an early example of U.S. expansion beyond its continental borders.

Alfred Mahan’s role in foreign policy

A prominent naval strategist who argued that global power depended on naval supremacy and advocated for the expansion of the U.S. fleet. His book The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1890) influenced leaders to establish overseas bases and construct the Panama Canal. His ideas helped justify U.S. imperialism and military expansion.

Boxer Rebellion

A violent uprising in China (1899–1901) led by a nationalist group opposed to foreign influence and Christian missionaries. Western powers, including the U.S., intervened to suppress the revolt and protect their economic interests. The event reinforced foreign control over China and validated U.S. involvement in global affairs.

Traditional US foreign policy v. new foreign policy

Historically, American diplomacy focused on isolationism and avoiding entanglements in European conflicts. By the late 19th century, this stance shifted toward expansionism, marked by military interventions, economic dominance, and overseas territories. This transformation established the nation as a global power.

Social Darwinism and Imperialism

This ideology applied the concept of "survival of the fittest" to nations, justifying the dominance of stronger countries over weaker ones. It was used to rationalize U.S. expansion, arguing that Western civilization had a duty to bring progress to less developed societies. Such beliefs fueled racial and economic superiority narratives.

Industrialization/Urbanization and Imperialism

The rapid growth of factories and cities increased the demand for raw materials and markets, pushing the U.S. to seek resources abroad. Colonized territories provided economic opportunities and served as outlets for surplus goods. This economic drive was a key factor in expansionist policies.

Wilson and Mexico

During the Mexican Revolution, Woodrow Wilson intervened to protect American business interests and support leaders he deemed morally acceptable. His administration occupied Veracruz in 1914 and later clashed with Pancho Villa. These actions exemplified the contradictions in his moral diplomacy.

Treaty of Paris

This agreement ended the Spanish-American War, transferring control of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States. The acquisition of these territories ignited debates over imperialism and U.S. global responsibility. It marked America’s emergence as a colonial power.

Yellow Journalism

A sensationalist style of reporting, led by newspapers like those of Hearst and Pulitzer, that exaggerated events to sway public opinion. It played a key role in drumming up support for the Spanish-American War by portraying Spain as brutal oppressors in Cuba. This form of media manipulation influenced foreign policy decisions.

Hawaii’s role in American Imperialism

Strategically located in the Pacific, this island chain was annexed by the U.S. in 1898 after American business interests overthrew Queen Liliokalani. Its importance as a naval base, particularly at Pearl Harbor solidified its role in U.S. expansionism. Many sugar plantations in Hawaii were owned and operated by US businessmen,Treaty of Wanghia in 1844 established US trading rights between Hawaii and China, McKinley tariff of 1890 (still senator) negatively impacted US businessmen growing sugar in Hawaii. These issues prompted US businessmen in Hawaii to organize a coup of the Hawaiian government in hopes that the US would annex the country. The annexation reflected the growing influence of economic and military motivations in foreign policy.

Sanford Dole

He played a key role in the overthrow of Queen Liliʻuokalani and the U.S. annexation of Hawaii. As a leader of the pro-American business elite in Hawaii, he helped orchestrate the 1893 coup that deposed the queen, leading to the establishment of the Republic of Hawaii, where he served as president. He actively lobbied for U.S. annexation, which was initially blocked by President Grover Cleveland but later approved under President William McKinley in 1898. After annexation, he became the first governor of the Territory of Hawaii, solidifying U.S. control over the islands for economic and strategic purposes.

Impact of the closing of the frontier on Imperialism

Frederick Jackson Turner’s "Frontier Thesis" argued that the American frontier had shaped national identity, but by 1890, available land had diminished. This contributed to a shift in expansionist focus from the continental U.S. to overseas territories. Imperialism became the new frontier for economic and national growth.

Panama Canal and issues surrounding it

The canal, completed in 1914, revolutionized global trade by linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Roosevelt’s role in supporting Panamanian independence from Colombia to secure canal rights sparked controversy over U.S. intervention. The project exemplified America’s engineering prowess and strategic ambitions.

Anti-Imperialist League

Formed in 1898, this group opposed U.S. colonial expansion, arguing that imperialism contradicted democratic principles. Prominent members included Mark Twain and Andrew Carnegie, who criticized the annexation of the Philippines. Their resistance highlighted ethical concerns over U.S. foreign policy.

White Man’s Burden

A concept derived from Rudyard Kipling’s poem, it framed imperialism as a noble duty to civilize non-Western peoples. This ideology was used to justify American and European expansion in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific. The phrase became synonymous with paternalistic and racial justifications for empire-building.

Isolationism

A national policy that avoided foreign alliances, such as was suggested by George Washington in his “Farewell Address.” Isolationism was also embraced by part of the Monroe Doctrine of 1823 and after the First World War, when the United States refused to join the League of Nations and sought to distance itself during the 1930s from the rumblings of another world war.

Dollar diplomacy

A policy of President William Taft to promote American economic penetration to underdeveloped nations, especially in Latin America; it sought to strengthen American influence without requiring the presence of U.S. troops.

“reconcentration” camps

A term for the Spanish refugee camps into which Cuban farmers were herded in 1896 to prevent them from providing assistance to rebels fighting for Cuban independence from Spain.

Cuba (revolt and US intervention)

Cuba had been fighting for independence since 1868, but Spain (the mother country of the Cuban colony) crushed early rebellion attempts. The U.S. began monitoring the situation in Cuba closely in the mid-1890s due to moral issues (Spanish mistreatment of Cubans), economic interests, and political jockeying. U.S. sent the USS Maine to Cuba to protect US interests/business/citizens in Cuba (Gunboat Diplomacy), showing US power to the Spanish and rebels but it exploded and sank in Havana Harbor. Spanish concluded it was set off by internal fire, The US agreed with yellow journalists and said it was a Spanish mine (“terrorism”). McKinley supported increased US role in foreign affairs, but not necessarily war against Spain, while the public supported war since yellow journalists had a great influence on the public.

Jose Marti

He was a Cuban revolutionary leader, poet, and journalist who played a crucial role in advocating for Cuba’s independence from Spain. He organized and inspired the Cuban revolt through his writings and efforts to unite exiled Cuban revolutionaries, but he was killed in battle in 1895. His push for independence contributed to growing tensions that led to U.S. intervention in the Spanish-American War, ultimately resulting in Spain's defeat and U.S. control over Cuba.

Spanish American War

Was a short but impactful conflict fought primarily in the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Cuba that showcased the United States' growing military power. The war began with a naval victory by Commander George Dewey in the Philippines, demonstrating the strength of the modernized U.S. Navy and the Great White Fleet. At the same time, the U.S. annexed Hawaii, securing a key strategic location for naval operations. The land war in Cuba featured the Rough Riders, a volunteer cavalry unit led by Theodore Roosevelt, whose exploits were sensationalized by yellow journalists through stories about the charge up San Juan Hill and the Siege of Santiago.

Despite its military success, the U.S. faced challenges, including an unprepared army struggling in the tropical climate and significant troop losses due to disease. The invasion of Puerto Rico resulted in U.S. victory and contributed to Spain's surrender. The war ended with the U.S. defeating Spain, freeing Cuba from Spanish rule, and solidifying American territorial expansion. This victory established the U.S. as a global power, paving the way for increased influence in the Caribbean and Pacific.

McKinley and the Phillipines

McKinley wanted these islands for “moral reasons” (to rescue them from Spanish misrule and bring ‘morality’ to the islands). Spain did not want to give up the islands, so US paid Spain $20 million for the ‘cession’ of the Philippines. Emilio Aguinaldo, who fought alongside US troops to unseat Spanish control of the Philippines, now launched a rebellion against the United States where he demanded freedom, just like Cuba. US was not willing to grant this freedom to the Philippines so Aguinado and his rebels fought against US occupation for 7 years until they finally gave up their struggle against US forces (White Man’s Burden).

Outcomes of the Treaty of Paris

• Anti-Imperialist League – had many influential leaders (Twain, Jane Addams, Carnegie, William Dean Howells) who disagreed w/ annexations, believing that having colonies was hypocritical and unjust, and that a democracy should not possess overseas islands nor ‘subjects’

• Carnegie offered to buy the Philippines from McKinley

• Taft summed up many politicians’ viewpoints on the people of the Philippine by calling them “our little brown brothers”

• other people who rejected the idea of US colonization used racist ideology to support their views

  • did not want “dark skinned” peoples in the union, especially those worried about job competition

  • did not want peoples of island nations to having guaranteed constitutional rights like those on the mainland

Foraker Act

Established a civilian government in Puerto Rico after the island was ceded to the United States following the Spanish-American War. It ended military rule and created a government with a U.S. appointed governor and executive council, while allowing Puerto Ricans to elect a lower legislative house. However, it did not grant Puerto Ricans full U.S. citizenship or full self-governance, keeping the island under U.S. control. The act set the foundation for Puerto Rico's political status as an unincorporated U.S. territory.

Territorial gains by the US

Territorial Gains: Guam, Wake Island, Puerto Rico, Philippines, Hawaii

Protectorate Status: Cuba

Insular Cases

Supreme Ct. ruled that the rights of Americans do not apply to all territorial gains, only those destined for statehood would be protected by the US Constitution. Upheld the tariff duty put in place by the Foraker Act, showed that territories would not be protected by the Constitution, and showed that Congress could do as they wished with US territories.

Philippines Insurrection/Revolution

After the U.S. took control of the Philippines from Spain, Filipino nationalists, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, launched a rebellion seeking independence. The conflict lasted seven years and involved guerrilla warfare, resulting in heavy casualties. Although the U.S. eventually defeated the rebels, opposition to U.S. control grew among anti-imperialists. The Jones Act later set an unspecified date for Philippine independence, which was granted after WWII.

Roosevelt Corollary

As an extension of the Monroe Doctrine, this policy declared that the U.S. would act as an "international police power" in Latin America to prevent European intervention. It justified U.S. involvement in countries like Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. The policy reinforced American dominance in the Western Hemisphere.

Big Stick Diplomacy

Theodore Roosevelt’s foreign policy approach emphasized military strength to achieve diplomatic goals. The phrase “Speak softly and carry a big stick” reflected his belief in showing power to deter conflicts. This policy led to increased U.S. intervention, particularly in Latin America and the Pacific.

Dollar Diplomacy

William Howard Taft’s foreign policy focused on promoting U.S. economic interests abroad. By encouraging American businesses to invest in Latin America and Asia, he sought to create political and economic stability while reducing the need for military intervention. However, this policy often led to resentment among foreign nations.

Moral Diplomacy

Woodrow Wilson’s foreign policy aimed to spread democracy and human rights rather than relying on military force or economic incentives. While he opposed imperialism, his actions contradicted his ideals, as he intervened in Mexico, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. His approach shaped U.S. involvement in global affairs during WWI.

Gunboat Diplomacy

The use of military force or intimidation to influence foreign policy, especially in Latin America. The U.S. frequently used this approach to secure its interests, such as during the Panama Revolution.

Great White Fleet

A fleet of U.S. battleships sent on a world tour by Theodore Roosevelt to demonstrate American naval power. This was a key example of "Big Stick Diplomacy" and helped establish the U.S. as a dominant military force.

Jones Act (1916)

A law promising eventual independence for the Philippines but not setting a specific date. The Philippines remained a U.S. territory until after World War II.

Gentlemen’s Agreement (1907)

An informal agreement between the U.S. and Japan in which Japan limited emigration to the U.S., and the U.S. agreed to stop segregating Japanese students in California schools. It helped ease tensions between the two nations.

Root-Takahira Agreement (1908)

An agreement between the U.S. and Japan to respect each other’s territorial possessions in the Pacific and maintain the Open Door Policy in China. It temporarily eased U.S.-Japan tensions.

Mexican Revolution (1913-1917) and Pancho Villa Raids

A period of political instability in Mexico that led to U.S. involvement. Wilson refused to recognize the new dictatorship of Victoriano Huerta and later sent troops to occupy Veracruz, escalating tensions. Mexican revolutionary Pancho Villa led attacks on U.S. border towns, killing American civilians. In response, Wilson sent General John J. Pershing to capture Villa, but he was unsuccessful.

Proclamation of Neutrality (1914)

Issued by President Wilson, this declaration stated that the U.S. would not take sides in World War I. However, economic ties with Britain and France gradually pulled the U.S. toward supporting the Entente Powers.

Lusitania Sinking

A British passenger ship sunk by a German U-boat, killing 1,200 people, including 128 Americans. The event outraged the U.S. and increased anti-German sentiment, pushing the U.S. closer to war.

Sussex Pledge

Germany promised not to sink merchant and passenger ships without warning after the U.S. threatened to cut diplomatic ties. However, Germany later resumed unrestricted submarine warfare, leading to U.S. entry into WWI.

Treaty of Portsmouth

Signed in 1905, ended the Russo-Japanese War, and was brokered by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, marking the first time an American leader mediated a major international conflict. The treaty granted Japan control over Korea and parts of Manchuria while limiting Russian expansion in East Asia, helping to stabilize the balance of power in the Pacific. Although Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts, neither Russia nor Japan was fully satisfied with the terms, leading to increased tensions with both nations. The treaty also marked the emergence of the United States as a key diplomatic force in global affairs.