History of English Literature 1 -- Words and Important Information

For Beowulf Quiz & General Knowledge

Hwæt (first 25 lines)

Lo! Listen! So!

Gār-Dena (first 25 lines)

Spear-Danes

Þrym (first 25 lines)

great force, glory, magnificence, greatness

ellen (first 25 lines)

strength, vigor, valor, courage

frōfre (genitive of frōfor)

(first 25 lines)

solace, comfort

gēardagum (first 25 lines)

In days of yore (adv.)

Beowulf Manuscript age

1. Dated at 1000 AD

2. Composed between 500 and 1000 AD

What is the language of Beowulf?

Old English (450-1066AD). Inflected & Alliterative Meter.

• More Germanic

Middle English Details

• 1066-1500AD

• Norman/French and Latin influences are more pronounced

• Alliterative meter or iambic pentameter

Geography of Beowulf

Danes are located on the middle island thing. Geats are located on the shore of modern day Sweden.

“The hall towered

high and horn-gabled—it awaited hostile fires,

the surges of war; the time was not yet at hand

when the sword-hate of sworn in-laws

should arise after ruthless violence (wælnīðe). A bold demon (ellengǣst) who waited in darkness

wretchedly suffered all the while,

for every day he heard the joyful din

loud in the hall, with the harp’s sound,

the clear song of the scop. He who knew

how to tell the ancient tale of the origin of men…”

(lines 81–92).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator

Goes from talking about battle between in-laws destroying the mead-hall to introducing Grendel lurking in the background.

Line 276 uncūðne nið,

unknown strife, envy, hatred. used to describe Grendel

Line 85 wælniðe

deadly/slaughtering strife. Used to describe human kin (Hrothgar and his son-in-law) burning the mead hall.

     “Hyge-wælm asteah

beorne on breostum,  blatende nið,

yrre for æfstum.”

“Passion surged in the man’s breast, livid hate/strife and envious rage.”

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Story of cain & abel. Reoccurring theme/motif of envy of fellow man. Grendel is born from Cain’s envious branch.

Yrre

Ire, anger, wrath

Untȳdras

Misbegotten things

Ellengǣst

from ellen & gæst, means courageous spirit

“for the great ravager relentlessly stalked,

a dark death-shadow, lurked and struck

old and young alike, in perpetual night

held the misty moors. Men do not know

whither such whispering demons wander about.

  Thus the foe of mankind, fearsome and solitary,

often committed his many crimes,

cruel humiliations; he occupied Heorot,

the jewel-adorned hall, in the dark nights—

he saw no need to salute the throne,

he scorned the treasures; he did not know their love.

That was deep misery to the lord of the Danes,

crushing his spirit. Many a strong man sat

in secret counsel, considered advice,

what would be best for the brave at heart

To save themselves from the sudden attacks” (159–174).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator is describing Grendel’s presence in the mead-hall. Develops his evil spirit and the impact he has on the Danes.

gōd

good

Higeþrymmum

strength of heart. From hyge and þrym

“he did not consider his days on earth

of any use at all” (793–94).

“cared not for his life” (1442).

“he cares nothing for his life” (1536).

 

“His heart was grieving,

restless, ripe for death” (2419–20).

“but he, wakeful, keeping watch for his enemy,

awaited, enraged, the outcome of battle” (708–709).

 

“the angry challenger threw away that etched blade,

wrapped and ornamented, so that it lay on the earth,

strong, steel-edged. He trusted his strength,

the might of his handgrip—as a man should do

if by his warfare he thinks to win

long-lasting praise: he cares nothing for his life” (1531–37)

 

“Grim and enraged” (2401).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Continued examples of the narrator describing Beowulf’s relationship with death. Part of his thirst for glory is his faith in god/faith that makes him accept the possibility of death for the potential for glory. As the piece goes on, Beowulf somewhat shifts from a youthful lack of fear for death because of a lack of understanding to an elderly view of acceptance.

“Then from the moor, in a blanket of mist,

Grendel came stalking—he bore God’s anger (yrre);

the evil marauder meant to ensnare

some of human-kind in that high hall.

Under the clouds he came until he clearly knew

he was near the wine-hall, men’s golden house,

finely adorned.…

The door burst open,

fast in its forged bands, when his fingers touched it;

bloody-minded, swollen with rage, he swung open

the hall’s mouth, and immediately afterwards

the fiend strode across the paved floor,

went angrily; in his eyes stood

a light not fair, glowing like fire.

He saw in the hall many a soldier,

a peaceful troop sleeping all together,

a large company of thanes—and he laughed inside;

he meant to divide, before day came

this loathsome creature, the life of each man

from his body, when there befell him

the hope of a feast” (710–16, 721–34)

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator describing Grendel coming upon the med-hall the second time with beowulf there. His rage here compares to the rage we see in beowulf.

“The good kinsman of Hygelac remembered then

his evening speech, and stood upright

and seized him fast. His fingers burst;

the giant turned outward, the earl stepped inward.

The notorious one meant—if he might—

to turn away further and flee, away

to his lair in the fen; he knew his fingers

were held in a hostile grip” (758–65)

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator describes beowulf and grendel’s grappling.

“Both were angry (yrre),

fierce house-wardens—the hall echoed.

It was a great wonder that the wine-hall

withstood their fighting and did not fall to the ground,

that fair building—but it was fastened

inside and out with iron bands,

forged with skill.

From the floor there flew

many a mead-bench, as men have told me,

gold-adorned, where those grim foes fought.

The Scylding elders had never expected

that any man, by ordinary means,

could break it apart, beautiful, bone-adorned,

or destroy it with guile, unless the embrace of fire

might swallow it in flames. The noise swelled

new and stark—among the North-Danes was

horrible terror, in each of them

who heard through the wall the wailing cry—

God’s adversary shrieked a grisly song

of horror, defeated, the captive of Hell

bewailed his pain. He pinned him fast,

he who was the strongest of might among men

in those days of this life” (769–88).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator compares the temperment of beowulf and grendel. Though one is the hero and the other wicked, they are alike in their rage.

Ellenmærþ

glory of courage

“I could not—the Creator did not wish it—

hinder his going, no matter how hard I held

that deadly enemy; too overwhelming was

that fiend’s flight”  (967–70).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Beowulf describing how he couldn’t let Grendel go. Brings up the question of fate. Beowulf couldn’t hold him because it wasn’t meant to be.

Wyrd

fate

“That murky land

they hold, wolf-haunted slopes, windy headlands,

awful fenpaths, where the upland torrents

plunge downward under the dark crags,

the flood underground. It is not far hence

—measured in miles—that the mere stands;

over it hangs a grove hoar-frosted,

a firm-rooted wood looming over the water.

Every night one can see there an awesome wonder,

fire on the water. There lives none so wise

or bold that he can fathom its abyss” (1357–67)

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Hrothgar is describing the lair that Grendel’s mother lays. Presents this mystical place with vivid imagery. So many parts of the world are covered in evil mist, showing the value of the mead hall in a dangerous world.

“where was written the origin

of ancient strife, when the flood slew,

rushing seas, the race of giants.” (1688–90)

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator describing the history of the giants from the hilt that hrothagar looks at from Beowulf’s adventure. Happens back at the mead-hall.

“Then the sword began,

that blade, to dissolve away in battle-icicles

from the war-blood; it was a great wonder

that it melted entirely, just like ice

when the Father loosens the frost’s fetters,

unwraps the water’s bonds—He wields power

over times and season; that is the true Maker.

The man of the Geats took no more precious treasures

from that place—though he saw many there—

than the head, the hilt as well,

bright with gems; the blade had melted,

The ornamented sword burned up; so hot was the blood

of the poisonous alien spirit who died in there.

Soon he was swimming who had survived in battle

the downfall of his enemies, dove up through the water;

the sea-currents were entirely cleansed,

the spacious regions when that alien spirit

gave up life-days and this loaned world” 

  (1605–1622)

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator describes the great sword of man melting from the blood of Grendel.

Gilp-cwide

Boasting, glorious speech

  “I shall perform
a deed of manly courage, or in this mead-hall
I will await the end of my days!” (636–38)

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Beowulf speaking to the Danes in the mead-hall, proclaiming what he will do. Brings up Beowulf’s lack of death-related fears in the pursuit of glory. Paints Beowulf as courageous.

“Have it and hold it, protect this best of houses,

be mindful of glory (mǣrþo), show your mighty valor (mægenellen),

watch for your enemies! You will have all you desire,

if you emerge from this brave undertaking (ellenweorc) alive”

  (658–661).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Hrothgar speaks to beowulf in the mead-hall before he prepares to wait for Grendel.

mǣrþo

greatness, honor, glory, fame

mægenellen

mighty/great courage

ellenweorc

work of courage

“and then let the wise Lord,

the holy God, grant the judgment of glory (mǣrðo dēme)

to whichever hand seems proper to Him” (685–88).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Beowulf speaking boastfully before he sleeps. Puts his fate in the hands of God.

Mǣrðo dēme

Judgment of glory. From Mǣrðo and Dōm.

Mǣrðo

greatness, honor, glory, fame

Dōm

Both: 1. Judgment, justice, decree, fate

2. majesty, glory, praise, magnificence

“But the Lord gave

a web of victory to the people of the Weders,

comfort (frōfor) and support, so that they completely

overcame their enemy through one man’s craft,

by his own might. It is a well-known truth

that mighty God has ruled mankind

always and forever” (696–702).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator speaking of the upcoming battle. Kind of giving respect to God himself, outside the story.

“Wyrd often spares

an undoomed man, when courage (ellen) endures!” (572–73).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Beowulf speaks paradoxically. Is it really fate if you will be spared if you are courageous? Beowulf is speaking after Unferth spoke to him and describing his perspective on his Brecca adventure.

“Each of us must await the end

of this world’s life; let him who can

bring about fame (dōmes) before death—that is best

for the unliving man after he is gone” (1386–89).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Beowulf is speaking of glory before he goes to Grendel’s mother. Deeds help man live past his death, grant him a kind of immortality.

“At last the portion of pride (oferhygda) within him

grows and flourishes, while the guardian sleeps,

the soul’s shepherd—that sleep is too sound,

bound with cares, the slayer too close

who, sinful and wicked, shoots from his bow.

Then he is struck in his heart, under his helmet

with a bitter dart—he knows no defense—

the strange, dark demands of evil spirits;

what he has long held seems too little,

angry and greedy, he gives no golden rings

for vaunting boasts, and his final destiny

he neglects and forgets, since God, Ruler of glories,

has given him a portion of honors.

Defend yourself from wickedness, dear Beowulf,

best of men, and choose better,

eternal counsel; care not for pride (oferhȳda),

great champion! The glory of your might

is but a little while; too soon it will bethat sickness or the sword will shatter your strength,

or the grip of fire, or the surging flood,

or the cut of a sword, or the flight of a spear,

or terrible old age—or the light of your eyes

will fail and flicker out; in one fell swoop

death, o warrior, will overwhelm you” (1740–68).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Hrothgar warns beowulf about pride and glory. These feelings do not last forever and are not meant to. Hoarding greatness and glory to no end corrupts man’s soul and leads to death.

Oferhygd

pride, conceit, overreaching (From over/excessive + heart/thought)

“since that day

they never hindered the passage of any

sea-voyager” (567–69).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Beowulf responding to Unferth. Who cleared the world of evil for us and made the clean paths and waters.

“for he did not wish that any other man

on this middle-earth should care for glory

under the heavens, more than he himself” (503–05).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator describes Unferth. He is similar to Beowulf in glory fixation, but he is worse. His glory leads him to fight kin and seek the loss of others’ glory. This differentiates him from Beowulf

“It is his nature to find

a hoard in the earth, where, ancient and proud,

he guards heathen gold, though it does him no good” (2275–77).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator describing the dragon. Dragon’s symbolize greed, envy, hoarding, and pride.

“he did not dread that attack,

nor did he worry much about the dragon’s warfare,

his strength or valor, because he had survived

many battles” (2347–50).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator Describing beowulf. His lack of death-fear remains intact, but not because of fate’s will but because of his experience in battle.

“And so the son of Ecgtheow had survived

every struggle, every terrible onslaught,

with brave deeds, until that one day

when he had to take his stand against the serpent.

Grim and enraged, the lord of the Geats

took a dozen men to seek out the dragon” (2397–2402).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator describes Beowulf’s preparations. Instead of bringing an army, he brings a few men.

“To the good man that was

painful in spirit, greatest of sorrows;

the wise one believed he had bitterly offended

the Ruler of all, the eternal Lord,

against the old law; his breast within groaned

with dark thoughts—that was not his custom” (2327–32).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator describes Beowulf’s situation. He is questioning god’s/fate’s view of him because his home was burned down.

“His heart was grieving,

restless, ripe for death—the doom (wyrd) was immeasurably near

that was coming to meet that old man,

seek his soul’s treasure (sāwle hord), split asunder

his life and body; not for long was

the spirit of that noble king enclosed in its flesh” (2419–24).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator speaks of beowulf’s impending end.

Hord

hoard, treasure

“and all my life

I will wage war, while this sword endures” (2498–99).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Beowulf is recounting his life. he will always search for glory.

“I have survived

many battles in my youth; I will yet,

an old folk-guardian, seek out a feud

and do a glorious deed” (2511–14).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Beowulf boasts for his last time. Still seeks glory.

“Then that prince of rings scorned (Oferhogode) to seek out

the far-flung flier with his full force of men,

a large army” (2345–47).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator describes how beowulf is confident in the battle and himself.

Oferhogode

“scorned”.

verb version of oferhydg (Hrothgar used that for pride and excessive conceit in his sermon)

“Enraged, the ruler of the Weder-Geats

let a word burst forth from his breast,

shouted starkly; the sound echoed,

resounding battle-clear under the gray stone.

Hate was stirred up—the hoard-warden recognized

the voice of man; there was no more time

to sue for peace. First there issued

the steam of that great creature out of the stone,

hot battle-sweat; the earth bellowed.

The warrior in the barrow turned his shield-board

against the grisly stranger, lord of the Geats,

when the writhing beast’s heart was roused

to seek combat. The good war-king

had drawn his sword, its edges undulled,

as ancient heirloom; each of the two

hostile ones stood in horror of the other” (2550–65).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator describes Bewulf yelling out for the dragon to come to him. Different than how he waited for Grendel.

“Fate (wyrd) did not

grant victory in battle” (2574–75).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator describes Beowulf nearing his end in this difficult fight.

“suffered anguish,

trapped by flames, he who had once ruled his folk” (2594–95).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator describes the first time we really see Beowulf in pain.

“For this he chose us from the army

for the adventure by his own will,

thought us worthy of glory, and gave me these treasures—

for this he considered us good spear-warriors,

proud helmet-wearers, even though our prince,

shepherd of his people, intended to perform

this act of courage (ellenweorc) alone,

because he has gained the most glory among men,

reckless heroic deeds. Now the day has come

that our noble lord has need of the support

of good warriors; let us go to it,

help our warlord, despite the heat,

grim fire-terror. God knows for my part

that I would much prefer that the flames should enfold

my body alongside my gold-giving lord” (2638–52).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Wiglaf tells his comrades that they must save Beowulf. Beowulf has protected them, so they must now repay all the deeds he did for them.

Ellenweorc

work of courage

“when noblemen learn

far and wide of your flight,

your inglorious deed. Death is better

for any earl than a life of dishonor!” (2888–91).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Wiglaf tells those who flee that their cowardice is disgusting and dishonorable. If they can’t do this now, what will they do when they are the ones who must lead the nation?

“Dear Beowulf, do all well,

as in your youth you said you would,

that you would never let in your whole life

your fame (dōm) decline; now firm in deeds,

single-minded nobleman, with all your strength

you must protect your life—I will support you” (2663–68).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Wiglaf speaks to Beowulf and goes to help him. Glory does not just have to be about one person and the intention behind all heroics isn’t just the pursuit of glory.

“Still the battle-king  

remembered his glory” (2678–79).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator speaking. Despite how hurt Beowulf is, he remembers his glory, achievements, and strength, pushing through to defeat the dragon with Wiglaf.

“I held this people

fifty winters; there was no folk-king,

not any neighboring tribes,

who dared to face me with hostile forces

or threaten attack. The decrees of fate

I awaited on earth, held well what was mine, I sought no intrigues, nor swore many false or wrongful oaths”(2732-2739)

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Beowulf speaks to Wiglaf. Beowulf was complicated, but this suggests someone like him is necessary to bring peace and prosperity.

“'fate (wyrd) has swept away

all of my kinsmen, earls in their courage,

to their final destiny; I must follow them.’

That was the last word of the old warrior,

his final thought before he chose the fire,

the hot surging flames—from his breast flew

his soul to seek the judgment (dōm) of the righteous” (2814–20).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Beowulf speaks to Wiglaf and narrator narrates the rest. How will god view Beowulf’s actions?

“Heaven swallowed the smoke” (3155).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

narrator hints where Beowulf may go in the afterlife

  “As it is proper

that one should praise his lord with words,

should love him in his heart when the fatal hour comes,

when he must from his body be led forth,

so the men of the Geats lamented

the fall of their prince, those hearth-companions;

they said that he was of all the kings of the world

the mildest of men and the most gentle,

the kindest of his folk and the most eager for fame (lofgeornost)”

  (3174–82).

Speaker:

What’s going on:

Narrator describes the geat’s mourning, but was Beowulf really as gentle and mild as they lead him on to be? More saying that his kind of glory and the peace it provided went hand in hand with gentleness.

Lofgeornost

Eagerness for glory