Period 8: 1945-1980

8.1 Contextualizing Period 8

• U.S. emerged from WWII w/ the world’s largest & strongest economy

• Cold War lasted b/t the U.S. and Soviet Union from 1945-80

  • Shown in U.S. involvement in Korean + Vietnam Wars & Cuban Missile Crisis

• Second Red Scare, due to spies giving communists secrets about the atomic bomb

  • Communists were hunted down throughout American institutions & gov’t

• Economic growth from 1950s-60s: little overseas competition & ppl moved to Sun Belt states

• Civil rights movement & push for equality

• Frustration over Vietnam & opposition to civil rights → turn toward Conservatism

  • Many lost confidence in the U.S. gov’t

8.2 The Cold War from 1945-80

Origins of the Cold War

• WWII alliance b/t USA & USSR was a temporary halt in their poor relations in the past (USSR wasn’t recognized by the US until 1933)

• UN was founded in 1945 → Soviets rejected the Baruch Plan, which aimed to eliminate atomic weapons

  • Also rejected invitation to the World Bank - they viewed it as an instrument of capitalism

• Soviets held occupation in countries in Central + E. Europe & held elections that favored Communist candidates

  • Many argued for satellites/buffer states, to protect from another Hitler-like invasion

• Eastern Germany → German Democratic Republic, a Communist state under Soviet occupation

  • Soviets believed in war reparations; U.S. & GB didn’t to allow for economic recovery

• Iron Curtain: the division b/t the U.S. allies in W. Europe & Soviet allies in E. Europe

Containment in Europe

• 1947: Truman adopted a containment policy to prevent Soviet expansion w/o starting a war

  • In response to: Communist-led uprising in Greece & Soviet demands for some control of a water route in Turkey

• Truman Doctrine: Truman asked Congress for $400 million to assist the “free people” of Greece and Turkey against “totalitarian” regimes → bipartisan support

• European discontent → growth of the Communist party

• Marshall Plan: U.S. economic aid to help European nations revive their economies & strengthen democratic governments → $12 billion in aid was granted

  • Ended most Communist threats & encouraged U.S. prosperity, BUT deepened the right b/t non-Communist West and Communist East

• Berlin Airlift: Soviets cut off all land access to Berlin, so Truman ordered U.S. planes to fly in supplies to the people of W. Berlin → 11-month long blockage led to E. & W. Berlin

• NATO: Ten European nations + U.S. & Canada, defending all members from outside attack

  • Soviets countered w/ the Warsaw Pact to defend Communist states of E. Europe

• U.S. passed the National Security Act, which helped w/ foreign policy & gathering information on foreign governments

• Soviets developed their first atomic bomb in 1949 & Truman developed the H-bomb, which was more powerful than the bomb dropped on Hiroshima

• NSC-68: measures necessary to fight the Cold War (e.g. increase U.S. defense spending and form alliances with non-Communist countries around the world)

Cold War in Asia

• Japan was under the control of U.S. General Douglas MacArthur

  • A parliamentary democracy was set up + new constitution made Japan dependent on the U.S. for military protection

• 1951: Japan gave up claims to Korea + some Pacific islands → U.S. ended occupation, but stayed in Japan to protect against Communism

• 1946: Philippines became independent, but the U.S. retained important naval + air bases

• China was divided between nationalists and communists → civil war

  • U.S. gave $400 million to the nationalists → 80% of U.S. military supplies ended up in Communist hands

• Mainland China became Communist & Taiwan was where nationalists retreated to

• After the defeat of Japan, Korea was split into North (ruled by Soviets) & South (ruled by U.S.)

  • June 1950: N. Korea invaded S. Korea

• The UN + Truman sent troops to help S. Korea → N. Koreans initially pushed forces to the tip of the peninsula

  • UN forces pushed too far North toward the Chinese border, so China drove them out of N. Korea

  • Peace talks began in July 1951

• Truman’s containment policy worked in Korea

  • His admin used this war to push for military expansion

  • Republicans attacked him as being “soft on communism” due to the success of Communists in China + Korea

Eisenhower and the Cold War

• Focused on foreign policy + international crises throughout his 2 terms

• Secretary of State Dulles criticized Truman’s containment policy as being too passive

  • He believed in challenging Communism - brinkmanship - which pleased conservatives

• Dulles advocated for relying on nuclear weapons to save money

  • The U.S. developed a hydrogen bomb, but the Soviets caught up

  • Massive retaliation seemed like mutual annihilation to many

• Korean Armistice: fighting stopped, most U.S. troops were withdrawn, and Korea was divided near the 38th parallel

U.S.-Soviet Relations

• Spirit of Geneva: a slowdown in the arms race — “atoms of peace” presented to the UN

  • Soviets withdrew troops from Austria & had peaceful relations w/ Greece & Turkey

  • New Soviet leader supported “peaceful coexistence” in 1956

• Hungarian Revolt: uprising that overthrew a gov’t back by Moscow — wanted to pull out of the Warsaw Pact

  • Soviet tanks crushed this uprising & restored control over Hungary — U.S. took no action

• 1957: Soviet Union launched Sputnik I and II → American embarrassment

  • Intensified fears of nuclear war

  • NASA created to compete with Russia + NDEA passed to improve funding for schools

• Second Berlin Crisis: Soviet leader gave the West 6 months to pull its troops out of W. Berlin, before turning over the city to E. Germans

  • U.S. refused & invited Soviet to the U.S. — put off the crisis

• U-2 Incident: Russians shot down a U.S. spy plane (learn about Soviets missile program)

  • Soviet leader denounced the U.S. → ending the “thaw” to the Cold War

Communism in Cuba

• Rise of Fidel Castro → nationalized American owned businesses & properties in Cuba

  • Eisenhower cut off U.S. trade with Cuba

• Castro turned to Soviets → Eisenhower allowed the CIA to train anti-communist Cuban exiles

Eisenhower’s Legacy

• Helped reduce Cold War tensions → first arms limitations in 1958

• Military-Industrial Complex: Eisenhower discussed negative impact of Cold War in his farewell address - he warned against acquiring unwarranted influence

To the Brink of War and Back

• JFK elected in 1960 for attacking recession & allowing Soviets to lead the arms race during Eisenhower’s administration

• Bay of Pigs Invasion: plan to use Cuban exiles to overthrow Castro’s regime

  • Failed to set off an uprising & Kennedy didn’t use additional U.S. forces to save them

  • Castro used this to get more Soviet aid

• JFK met with the Soviet leader in 1961, who demanded the U.S. pulled its troop out Berlin

  • Kennedy refused → E. Germans + Soviets built a wall around W. Berlin to stop E. Germans from fleeing to the West

  • Soviet & U.S. tanks faced off & Kennedy assured W. Germany that they had U.S support

• Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): Soviets built underground missile sites that would attack the U.S. in Cuba

  • Kennedy set up a naval blockade of Cuba until the weapons were removed

  • After 13 days of tension: Soviet leader removed the missile from Cuba, IF the U.S. agreed not to invade the island

  • Established a telecommunications network b/t Washington & Moscow

• Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963): signed by Soviets, U.S., and almost 100 other nations

• JFK implemented the flexible-response policy to reduce the risk of using nuclear weapons

Lyndon Johnson Becomes President

• Focused on domestic reforms, but:

  • Continued containment policy → block spread of Communism

  • Escalated the Vietnam War & engage the Soviets

• Negotiated agreements with Soviets to control nuclear weapons

  • Outer Space Treaty

  • Non-Proliferation Treaty: agreed to not help other countries develop/acquire nuclear weapons

Nixon’s Detente Diplomacy

• Bring Americans together & focused on int’l relations

  • Ended Vietnam War + reduced Cold War tensions

• Detente: took advantage of rivalry b/t China and the Soviets → reduced Cold War tensions

• Nixon’s relationship with China led to arms control with the Soviets

  • Treaty that limited certain missiles

Another Chill in the Cold War

• 1979: U.S. recognized the People’s Republic of China as the official gov’t of China

• Soviets invade Afghanistan (1979): ended the improvement of U.S.-Soviet relations

  • U.S. feared USSR controlling the oil-rich gulf

  • Pres. Carter placed an embargo on grain exports + sale of high tech to the USSR & boycotted the 1980 Olympics in Moscow

8.3 The Red Scare

Rooting Out Communists

• Loyalty Review Board (1947): investigated the background of 3 mil+ federal employees

  • Thousands lost jobs

• Smith Act: illegal to advocate or teach the overthrow of the gov’t by force/belong to an organization with this objective

  • e.g.) Leaders of the American Communist Party were jailed

• McCarran Internal Security Act (1950): unlawful to advocate/support the establishment of totalitarian gov’t → created detention camps for subversives

• HUAC: searched for Communists in gov’t & its influence throughout various organizations

• Limited freedom of expression — loyalty oaths were common for writers + teachers

Espionage Cases

• Hiss Case: Alger Hiss was convicted of perjury and sent to prison for being a communist

  • Due to a communist testimony + investigative work of Nixon

• Rosenberg Case: found guilty of treason + executed in 1953

The Rise and Fall of Joseph McCarthy

• Republican senator who advanced his career over the growing concern of communism

• Used unsupported accusations about Communists in gov’t to discredit the Truman admin

• Exposed in 1954 for his “reckless cruelty”

• Fear of Communist takeover was overblown

8.4 Economy after 1945

• Military members needed to find jobs after WWII → increased consumer demand for autos + housing + gov’t roadbuilding → economic growth

Postwar Economy

• Employment Act of 1946: created the Council of Economic Advisers, who advised the president + Congress on promoting nat’l economic welfare

• GI Bill of Rights: helps 2 mil+ GIs attend college & 5 mil more receive other training

  • Veterans received low-interest, gov’t-backed loans to buy homes, farms, & start businesses

    • Increased racial gap → mainly benefited White veterans

• Baby Boom: 50 million babies b/t 1945-60 — due to more marriages + births

  • 1960: 1/3 of all married women worked outside the home

• Levittown: 17k mass-produced, low-priced family homes → suburban growth

  • Only for white families

• Rise of the Sun Belt: warm climate, lower taxes, & economic opportunities in defense-related industries

• Inflation post WWII → workers + unions demanding higher wages

Truman vs. the Republican Congress

• 22nd amendment (1951): president had a maximum of 2 full terms in office

• Taft-Hartley Act (1947): probusiness act passed by Congress, which checked the power of growing unions

  • e.g.) Outlawing secondary boycotts

• Election of 1948: though Truman’s popularity was at a low point, he won the election

• The Fair Deal: ambitious reform program (e.g. nat’l health insurance & civil rights legislation)

  • Congress blocked most reforms EXCEPT for an increase in minimum wage

  • Most bills defeated due to: Truman’s conflicts w/ Congress & foreign policy concerns of the Cold War

Eisenhower in the White House (1953-61)

• Eisenhower had a style of leadership that emphasized the delegation of authority → he filled his cabinet w/ successful corporate executives

  • Prioritized balancing the budget

• He accepted many New Deal reforms & even expanded some (e.g. extending social security & increasing minimum wage)

• Created the Department of HEW & soil-bank program for farmers (reduce farm production, to increase farm income)

  • Opposed nat’l health insurance and nat’l aid to education

• Highway Act: authorized 42k miles of interstate highways linking all the nation’s major cities

  • New taxes on fuel, tires, & vehicles → improve nat’l defense

  • Hurts railroads + environment

• Steady economic growth

Economy under the Democrats (1961-69)

• New Frontier Programs: JFK called for education aid, nat’l support to healthcare, & civil rights

  • Few passed under JFK’s administration; most passed under Johnson

• Trade Expansion Act (1962): authorized tariff reductions w/ W. european nations

  • Stimulated economy by increasing spending on defense + space exploration

• Johnson’s Domestic Reforms: persuaded Congress to pass an expanded version of JFK’s civil rights bill & JFK’s proposal for an income tax cut

Nixon’s Domestic Policy

The New Federalism

• Nixon tried to slow down the growth of Johnson’s Great Society by proposing the Family Assistance Plan — Congress defeated this

• Shifted some responsibility for social programs from the nat’l to state & local levels

  • Revenue sharing/New Federalism: local gov’ts could block grants to address local needs

Nixon’s Economic Policies

• 1970 recession = stagflation: economic slowdown + high inflation

  • Tried cutting federal spending (didn’t work) → Keynesian economic and deficit spending

  • Took the $ off the gold standard & additional 10% tax on all imports

• Recession ended in 1972 → Congress increased social security benefits

Ford and Carter Confront Inflation

• Inflation slowed economic growth → consumers + business could no longer afford high interest rates w/ high prices

  • Middle-class taxpayers got pushed into higher tax brackets → “taxpayers revolt”

• Chairman of the Federal Reserve Board pushed higher interest rates → hurt the automobile + business industries, which laid off thousands of workers

  • Ultimately helped reduce inflation

• Economic recovery of other nations challenged the U.S. position as the world’s strongest economy

8.5 Culture after 1945

• 1950s: consensus about political issues and conformity

Consumer Culture and Conformity

• Television became a center of family life → viewers watched westerns, sports, comedies, etc

  • Certain shows emphasized conservative values by depicting suburb stereotypes

• Advertising promoted material wants → suburban shopping centers + credit cards

  • Rise of franchise operations → new marketing techniques + standardized products

• Paperback books were extremely popular

• LP records were popular → teenagers listened to rock and roll

• Conglomerates with diversified holdings dominated various industries (e.g. hotels & banking)

  • More Americans held white-collar jobs than blue-collar jobs

• Large corporations promoted conformity (e.g. dress code)

• Post WWII: organized religions expanded — new religious tolerance

Women’s Roles

• Baby boom + running a home in the suburbs → most women did homemaking

  • Women’s role in the home was reaffirmed in mass media

• Well-educated women in the middle class + middle aged women entered the workforce

  • Lower wages

Social Critics

• Books & media created to address conformist society & failures of wealthy Americans

  • e.g) Catcher in the Rye

• Beatniks: rebellious writers + intellectuals who advocated being spontaneous, using drugs, and rebelling against societal standards

Assassination and the End of the Postwar Era

• JFK was assassinated in 1963

• Counterculture emerged in the late 1960s due to: the war’s failures, conspiracy theories of JFK’s death, conflicts over the civil rights movement, and materialism

8.6 Early Steps in the Civil Rights Movement, 1945-60

Origins of the Movement

• 1950s: African Americans focused on fighting racial segregation

  • South was segregated by law & there were poll taxes, literacy test, etc.

• Truman’s Leadership: established the Committee on Civil Rights & desegregated the armed forces

• Cold War: U.S. reputation for freedom + democracy weren’t represented in racial segregation + discrimination

Desegregating the Schools and Public Places

• NAACP had been fighting to overturn the decision made in Plessy v. Ferguson

• Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka: segregation of public schools violated the 14th amendment

• Resistance in the South: 101 members of Congress signed the “Southern Manifesto,” condemning the Supreme Court for abuse of power

  • KKK made a comeback

• Little Rock Nine: Arkansas’ governor used the national guard to prevent 9 African American students from attending a previously all-white high school

  • Eisenhower sent federal troops to protect the Black students

• Montgomery Bus Boycott: Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a bus → police were called and she was arrested

  • African Americans boycotted city buses

• MLK Jr. emerged as leader of the nonviolent movement to end segregation

  • Supreme Court eventually ruled segregation laws were unconstitutional

• Nonviolent protest:

  • Southern Christian Leadership Conference (1957): ministers and churches to get behind the civil rights struggle

  • Sit-in movement rose to call attention to injustice of segregated facilities

• Growing impatience in the 1960s → violent confrontations

• President Eisenhower signed civil rights laws in 1957 & 1960

  • Provided for a Civil Rights Commission & protected voting rights of African Americans

8.7 America as a World Power

Post WW2 = decolonisation / the collapse of colonial empires

Unrest in the “Third World”

• New developing nations often lacked stable political + economic institutions

  • Need for foreign aid made them pawns of the Cold War

  • 1960: more than 90% of U.S. foreign aid went to 3rd World nations

The Middle East

• Eisenhower’s administration conducted foreign policy with covert action / undercover intervention of politics of other nations

• Suez Crisis: Egypt seized the British and French owned Suez Canal, which threatened W. Europe’s oil supply from the Middle East

  • Britain + France retook the canal, but Eisenhower sponsored a UN resolution condemning the invasion of Egypt

• Eisenhower Doctrine: U.S. pledged economic + military aid to any Middle Eastern country threatened by communism

• Middle eastern countries + Venezuela formed OPEC to expand political power based on oil policies

• Yom Kippur War: Syrians + Egyptians attacked Israel to recover previously lost lands

  • Nixon ordered provided Israel with arms, allowing them to win → Arab members of OPEC placed an embargo on oil sold to Israel’s supporters

    • Worldwide oil shortage + inflation

• Camp David Accords: President Carter arranged a peace settlement b/t Egypt and Israel

• Anti-American sentiment grew in Iran → Iranian militants seizing the U.S. Embassy there & holding 50+ staff members as hostages

Latin America

• U.S. oppositions to communism often led Washington to support corrupt + ruthless dictators, esp. in Latin America

• JFK set up the Peace Corps (technical aid to developing countries) & the Alliance of Progress (land reform + economic development in Latin America)

• President Johnson judged neighbors based on their commitment against communism

  • Deployed troops to prevent Communist takeover in the Dominican Republic

  • Similar to “Big Stick” policy — preventing Communist gov’ts from coming to power in the W. hemisphere

• Carter’s administration negotiated a new treaty for the Panama Canal — granting people of Panama to have control of the canal

Policies in Africa

• Civil War broke out in the Congo after gaining freedom → U.S. helped UN stop the insurrection

• Nixon admin. strengthened ties w/ White minority gov’ts & the CIA spent millions to prevent Black rebels from overthrowing control in Angola

  • U.S. decided to no longer back White minority gov’ts

• Carter focused on human rights for foreign policy — appointed Andrew Young as U.S. ambassador for the UN

  • Championed the cause worldwide

Limits of a Superpower

• By the 1970s the U.S. began to lose its competitive edge gained from WW2

8.8 The Vietnam War

Eisenhower’s Domino Theory

• 1954: France gave up Indochina (Laos, Cambodia, & Vietnam)

  • Vietnam was divided until a general election: North = communist; South = anti-Communist & led by Diem

• Domino theory: if S. Vietnam fell under Communist control, so would other nations in SE Asia

• SEATO: regional defense pact b/t 8 nations to defend one another in case of an attack within the region

Escalation of the Vietnam War in the 1960s

• JFK adopted Eisenhower’s Domino Theory → continued U.S. military aid to S. Vietnam

• Diem was unpopular → assassinated

  • Vietnam had 7 different governments in 1964

• Tonkin Gulf Resolution: passed by Johnson + Congress & allowed LBJ to take ‘all necessary measures’ to protect U.S. interests in Vietnam

America’s War

• Operation Rolling Thunder: authorized by Johnson - prolonged air attack against N. Vietnam

  • 1965: Johnson used U.S. combat troops to fight

• Credibility gap: Misinformation from military + civilian leaders & Johnson’s reluctance to discuss the scope + costs of the war

• “Hawks”: supporters of the war - believed the war was an act of Soviet-backed communism against S. Vietnam

• “Doves”: opponents of the war - viewed the conflict as a civil war b/t Vietnamese nationalists v. communists

• Most opposition from college students, who would be drafted after graduation

• Tet Offensive: Vietcong launched a surprise attack on every American base in S. Vietnam

  • U.S. inflicted heavier losses on Vietcong + recovered lost territory

  • Millions viewed this as a setback for Johnson’s Vietnam policy

• Peace talks took place in 1968 → deadlocked over minor issues

Coming Apart at Home, 1968

• Election was divided: Nixon, Hubert Humphrey (Dem), George Wallace (Ind.)

  • Nixon won majority of electoral votes, but popular vote was close

Richard Nixon’s Vietnam Policy

• Vietnamization: reduce U.S. involvement in the war while avoiding the appearance of defeat

  • Gradually withdrew troops, but gave S. Vietnam money, weapons, & training

  • Nixon Doctrine: future Asian allies would get U.S. support w/o extensive ground forces

• April 1970: U.S. forces invaded Cambodia to destroy Vietnamese Communist bases there

  • Kent State protest: 4 students died — U.S. Senate repealed Gulf of Tonkin resolution

• My Lai massacre: U.S. troops killed women and children here in 1968

• Pentagon Papers: secret gov’t study documenting mistakes + deceptions of policymakers in dealing with Vietnam

• U.S. & N. Vietnam couldn’t reach a deal → Nixon ordered a massive bombing of N. Vietnam

  • Paris Accords: U.S. would withdraw the last of its troops in return for 500+ prisoners of war, cease-fire, and free elections in Vietnam

• War Power Act: passed by Congress that required the president to report to Congress within 48 hours after taking military action + Congress had to approve military action that last more than 60 days

Defeat in SE Asia

• Fail of Saigon (1975): Vietnam was reunified under the Communist gov’t → low point of American prestige overseas

• Genocide in Cambodia: Cambodia fell to a Communist faction that killed millions to rid the country of Western influence

8.9 The Great Society

• Johnson wanted to expand social reforms of the New Deal → “Great Society”

The War on Poverty

• Brought to attention by “The Other America” book

• Johnson created: the OEO w/ a billion dollar budget

  • Self-help programs for the poor: Head Start for preschoolers & Job Corps for vocational education

The Election of 1964

• Democratic Congress + President → LBJ won re-election

Great Society Reforms

• Congress increased funding for: mass transit, public housing, & crime prevention

  • Passed automotive industry regulations + Johnson created the Department of Transportation

  • Clean air + water laws enacted & federal parks + wilderness areas were expanded

• Johnson jeopardized his domestic achievements by escalating the war in Vietnam

Changes in Immigration

• 1980s: Most immigrants from Latin America + Asia → escaping Communist takeovers

• Immigration Act of 1965: opened the U.S. to immigration from all parts of the world

• Rise of undocumented immigrants → employers were penalized for hiring illegal immigrants

8.10 The African American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s

The Leadership of Dr. MLK Jr.

• “Leader of the civil rights movement” → nonviolent protests against segregation

• “Letter from Birmingham Jail” moved JFK to support a tougher civil rights bill

• March on Washington (1963): 200k+ people joined this peaceful march to support jobs + the civil rights bill

  • “I Have a Dream” speech

Federal Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1965

• Civil Rights Act (1964): made segregation illegal in all public facilities (e.g. hotels & restaurants)

  • Set up Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

• 24th amendment ratified → abolished poll taxes

• March to Montgomery: met with beating & tear gas → televised pictures sent LBJ to send federal troops to protect King + other marchers

• Voting Rights Act of 1965: ended literacy tests & federal registrars where Black people had been kept from voting since Reconstruction

Black Muslims and Malcolm X

• Preached black nationalism, separatism, and self-improvement

• Malcolm X criticized King as “Uncle Tom” & advocated self-defense against white people

Race Riots and Black Power

• Malcolm X’s radicalism inspired groups like: Black Panthers, SNCC, & CORE

• Race riots erupted in black neighborhoods of major cities w/ increasing casualties + destruction of property

• Mid-1960s: civil rights spread to “de facto segregation” & discrimination caused by racist attitudes

• King was assassinated in 1968 → nationwide rioting

  • Revealed anger + frustrations of Black people nationwide

8.11 The Civil Rights Movement Expands

The Women’s Movement

• Due to: increased education + employment, civil rights movement, & sexual revolution

• The Feminine Mystique (1963): a book encouraging middle-class women to seek fulfillment in professional careers in addition to being a wife/mother

  • Helped found the Nat’l Organization for Women (NOW)

• Congress passed: Equal Pay Act (1963), Civil Rights Act (1964), & Title IX (1972- ended sex discrimination in schools)

• Equal Rights Amendment: passed by Congress, but missed ratification by all 38 states

Latino Americans

• Many were forced to take low-paying agricultural jobs → exploitation

  • Cesar Chavez led the United Farm Workers Association

• Victories: bilingual education in schools & elections to public office

American Indian Movement

• Eisenhower admin made an unsuccessful attempt at assimilation

• AIM had militant actions (e.g. takeover of the abandoned Alcatraz Prison)

• Indian Self-Determination Act 1975: gave reservations + tribal lands greater control over internal programs, education, and law enforcement

Gay Rights Movement

• Police raid at Stonewall → riot & the gay rights movement

• Mid-1970s: homosexuality was no longer classified a mental illness

• 1993: President Clinton settled for “don’t ask, don’t tell” for gays in the military

The Warren Court and Individual Rights

• Earl Warren = chief justice of Supreme Court (1953-69)

  • Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954)

  • Gideon v. Wainwright = state courts must provide counsel for poor defendants (1963)

  • Miranda v. Arizona (1966) = police inform an arrest person of their right to remain silent

  • Baker v. Carr (1962): “one man, one vote” election districts needed to be redrawn for equal representation of all citizens

  • Yates v. USA (1957): 1st amendment protected radical & revolutionary speech, unless it was a clear danger

8.12 Youth Culture of the 1960s

• 1960s: Baby Boomer generation was going to college → university enrollments increased

  • Influenced by: civil rights movement & other groups demanding equality

Student Movement and the New Left

• Students for a Democratic Society: university students that rebelled against authority

  • Called for university decisions to be made by a participatory democracy

• Free Speech Movement (1964): took place at UC-Berkeley & demanded an end to university restrictions on students’ political activities

Students Against the Vietnam War

• Grew w/ the escalation of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War & increase of young men into the draft

  • Student could usually claim a deferment, but faced draft after college

  • Draft-card burning, sit-ins, & protests

• Chicago Convention: mix of peaceful & radical antiwar protestors damaged property & taunted police

• Weather Underground: embraced violence & vandalism → riots, bombings, stealing weapons

  • Discredit idealism of New Left to many Americans

The Counterculture

• Rebellious styles of dress, music, & drug use

  • Emergence of “hippies” & singers like Bob Dylan

• Woodstock Music Festival: hundreds of thousands attended → represented this culture

• Sexual Revolution: changed attitudes about casual sex & sexual themes in media

8.13 The Environment and Natural Resources from 1968-80

Origins of the Environmental Movement

• Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring explained the negative side effects of insecticide in American agriculture

• Barry Commoner found a cancer-causing substance in children’s teeth due to nuclear weapon tests

Public Awareness

• Ohio’s Cuyahoga River burst into flames due to oil on the surface

• Three Mile Island nuclear power plant accident

• Earth Day (1970): reflected growing concerns over air + water pollution & destruction of the natural environment

• The Apollo Crew took photos of Earth from space → “Earthrise” images for the environmental movement

• The Environmental movement grew extensively by the late 1960s — many organizations (e.g. the Sierra Club) established operations in Washington D.C.

Government Environmental Protection

• President Johnson signed almost 300 conservation + beautification bills

  • Wilderness Act: set aside some federal lands from commercial economic development to preserve their natural state

• Environmental Protection Agency: created by Nixon; responsible for enforcing federal policies on various environmental issues (e.g. air + water pollution)

• Clean Air Act (1970): regulated air emissions + authorized the EPA to regulate emissions of harmful air pollutants

• Endangered Species Act: aimed to protect ecosystems that wildlife depend on

• Congress reduced speed limits + many Americans bought more fuel-efficient cars from Japan

• 1970s were a high point of this movement

8.14 Society in Transition

• 1970s was marked by many losses → transition to a more conservative Republican government

The Nixon Presidency

• Aimed to appeal to the conservative “silent majority” that was disaffected by: civil rights, liberal court rulings, counterculture, etc.

• Asked federal courts in the South to delay integration plans & nominated 2 conservative judges to the Supreme Court

  • Helped Nixon win re-election + his foreign policy success in China + USSR

Watergate Scandal

• June 1972: a group of men hired by Nixon’s reelection committee broke into the offices of the Democratic national headquarters — only part of a series of illegal activities

• Nixon had ordered wire taps on gov’t employees + reporters to prevent news leaks

• Nixon’s aides were called “plumbers” to discredit opponents

• There wasn’t solid proof that Nixon ordered these activities, but there was proof of his attempt of an illegal cover up

• Nixon chose to resign in Aug. 1974 → Ford became president

Gerald Ford in the White House (1974-77)

• Granted Nixon a full & unconditional pardon

• Democratic Congress investigated abuse in the executive branch (esp. the CIA)

An Outsider in the White House

• The Iranian hostage crisis + economic crisis hurt Carter’s approval by Americans

• “National malaise” speech: blamed U.S. problems on a “moral and spiritual crisis”

The Burger Court

• Nixon appointed conservative Warren Burger to the Supreme Court

  • Made several decisions that upset conservatives

• Roe v. Wade: protected abortion rights in a 7-2 vote

Conservative Resurgence

• Protest movements, a slowing economy, & declining standard of living → many Americans had a conservative reaction to liberal policies

• Moral Majority: campaigns to unseat liberal members of Congress

• Business interests influenced federal + state gov’ts to lower taxes & weaken labor unions

  • “Think tanks” promoted free-market ideas

• President Johnson implemented affirmative action to ensure minorities had equal access to education

  • Regents of the University of California v. Bakke ruled while race could be considered, racial quotas were unconstitutional

    • Conservatives intensified campaigns to end preferences on race + ethnicity