Ap Psych Terms Review

Behavioral Perspective

Emphasizes observable behavior that can be objectively measured

Humanistic Perspective

Emphasizes the importance of self-esteem, free will, and choice in human behavior

Psychoanalytical/psychodynamic

Emphasizes the role of unconscious conflicts in determining behavior and personality

Cognitive perspective

compares the mind to a computer that encodes, processes, and stores information. Empathizes thinking, perceiving, and information processing

Biological perspective

Emphasizes genetics, the roles of parts of the brain, and the structure/function of individual nerve cells

Evolutionary Perspective

Emphasizes the role played by natural selection and adaption in the evolution of behavior and mental processes

Experimental method

a carefully controlled scientific procedure involving the manipulation of variables to determine cause/effect

independent variable

the factor that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter

dependent variable

the factor that is measured and affected by the independent variable

Experimental group

group that is exposed to the independent variable

control group

group that is exposed to all experimental conditions, except the independent variable

confounding variable

variables that have unwanted influence on the outcome of an experiment

double-blind study

a procedure in which neither the researcher or the participant knows which group received the experimental treatment

Case study

an in depth examination of a single research patient

correlation research

the researcher observes or measures two or more naturally occurring variables to find the relationship between them. In these studies, the researcher doesn’t manipulate any variables.

Correlation coefficent

A numerical value from +1 to -1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. A positive correlation indicates that the two variables move or vary in the same direction. A negative correlation indicates that the two variables mode or vary in opposite directions

Mean

the average score of a set of data

median

a measure of central tendency that divides a frequency distribution exactly in half

mode

identifies the most frequently occurring score

standard deviation

a measure of variability that indicates the average differences between the scores and their mean

normal distribution

a bell shaped curve that describes the spread of a characteristic throughout the population. In this instance, half the scores fall at or above the mean while half fall below or at the mean

Positively skewed distribution

contains a preponderance of scores on the low end of the scale. The mean will be higher than the median in this instance

negatively skewed distribution

the scores occur on the high end of the scale. the mean will be lower than the median in this instance

p-value

the probability of concluding a difference exists when in fact the difference doesn’t

neuron

a highly specialized nerve cell responsible for receiving and transmitting information in electrical/chemical forms

myelin sheath

a white fatty covering wrapped around the axons of some neurons, which increase the rate at which impulse travel along the axon

action potential

a brief electrical impulse by which information is transmitted along the axon of a neuron

all or nothing law

the principle that either a neuron is sufficiently stimulated and an action potential occurs or a neuron is not and an action potential doesn’t occur

endorphins

chemical substances in the nervous system that reduce perception of pain

neurotransmitters

chemical transmitters manufactured by the neuron. FOr example, dopamine is linked to schizophrenia and acetylcholine is linked to alzheimers.

Sympathetic Nervous System

branch of the automatic nervous system that produces rapid physical arousal in response to perceived emergencies

parasympathetic nervous system

branch of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, maintains bodily functions, and conserves energy

hypothalamus

small brain structure beneath the thalamus that helps govern the release of hormones by the pituitary gland and regulates hunger/thirst drive

cerebral cortex

a thin surface layer on the cerebral hemispheres that regulates most complex behavior, including sensations, motor control, and higher mental processes such as decision making

cerebral hemispehers

the left and right halves of the cerebral cortex. left half specializes in verbal/analytical functions. the right hemisphere focuses on nonverbal abilities such as art and music plus visual recognition

corpus callosum

the bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain

amygdala

part of the limbic system linked to regulation of emotional responses, especially fear and anger

hippocampus

part of the limbic system that is involved with learning and forming new memories

absolute threshold

the minimum intensity at which a stimulus can be detected at least 50 percent of the time

sensory adaptation

the decline in sensitivity to a constant stimulus. When the gym locker room doesn’t smell anymore

transduction

the process by which sensory receptors convert the incoming physical energy of a stimuli into neural impulses the brain can understand

signal detection theory

states that sensation depends on characteristics of the stimulus, the background stimulation, and the detector. Selective attention enables you to filter out and focus on only selected sensory messages

gate-control theory

the theory that explains how the nervous system blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain

Rods

the long, thin visual receptor cells in the retina that are highly sensitive to light, but not color. responsible for peripheral vision and black and white vision

cones

the short, thick visual receptor cells concentrated near the center of the retina. responsible for color vision and fine detail

blind spot

the point at the back of the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye. since there are no visual receptors there, a small gap in vision is created

cochlea

the coiled, snail like structure in the inner ear containing receptors for heaing

circadian rhythm

biological processes that systematically vary over a period of about 24 hours

REM sleep

type of sleep during which dreams usually occur. it is considered paradoxal as rapid eye movement is accompanied by muscle paralysis

hypnosis

a trancelike state of heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and intense focus. can be used to treat pain

dissociation

the splitting of consciousness into two or more simultaneous streams of mental activity

classical conditioning

the learning process that occurs when a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response

unconditioned stimulus

a natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning

unconditioned response

an unlearned response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus

neutral stimulus

a stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning

conditioned stimulus

originally the neutral stimulus. when systematically paired with the unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus as it gains the power to cause a response

conditioned response

the learned response elicited by the conditioned stimulus

extinction

the gradual weakening of a conditioned behavior when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus

stimuls generalization

occurs when stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus also elicit the conditioned response

stimulus discrimination

the ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli

operant conditoining

a learning process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by consequences that follow a response. Reinforcements and punishments

reinforcement

strengthens a response and makes it more likely to occur

positive reinforcement

a situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus. the stimulus increases the probability that the response will occur again

negative reinforcement

a situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the removal of a aversive stimulus. increases the likelihood of a behavior by enabling a person to escape an existing bad stimulus

premack principle

states that the opportunity to engage in a preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less preferred activity

continuous reinforcement

a reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced

shaping

the technique of strengthening behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior until the entire correct routine is displayed

intermittent reinforcement

the rewarding of some, but not all, correct responses

fixed ratio schedule

reinforcement occurs after a predetermined set of responses

variable ratio schedule

reinforcement is unpredictable because the ratio varies. casino slot machines use this method

fixed interval schedule

reinforcement occurs after a predetermined amount of time has elapsed

variable interval schedule

reinforcement occurs unpredictably since the time interval varies

punishment

the process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated

positive punishment

adding an aversive stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur

negative punishment

taking away a positive stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to occur

observational learning

occurs by watching others and then imitating or modeling the behavior

recall

the use of a general cue to retrieve a memory

recognition

the use of a specific cue to retrieve a memory

serial-poisiton effect

information at the beginning and end of a list is remembered better than material in the middle

episodic memory

a subdivision of declarative memory that stores memories of personal experiences and events

proactive interference

occurs when old information interferes with recalling new information

retroactive interference

occurs when new information interferes with recalling old information

retrograde amnesia

when people are unable to remember some or all of their past

anterograde amnesia

when a person is unable to form new memories

methods of loci

the process of remembering several pieces of information by mentally associating an image of each with a different location

phonemes

the smallest distinctive sound used in a language

morphemes

the smallest unit of meaning in a language

algorithm

a logical, step by step procedure that, if followed correctly, will eventually solve a specific problem

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of. an object as functioning only in its usual or customary way. As a result, individuals often do not see unusual uses of familiar objects

confirmation bias

a preference for information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring or discovering contradicting evidence

heuristic

a general rule of thumb or shortcut that is used to reduce the number of possible solutions

availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of an event based on readily available personal experiences or news reports. FOr example, news of a plane crash causes a family to cancel a flight and drive instead

representative heuristic

judging the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a typical example or prototype

divergent thinking

a type of thinking in which problem solvers devise a number of possible alternative approaches. major element in creativity

yerkes-dodson law

an optimal level of psychological arousal helps performances. when arousal is too low, our minds wander and we become bored, when arousal is too high, we become too anxious and freeze-up. people are thus motivated to seek a moderate level of arousal

Hierarchy of Needs

The theory that lower motives must be met before advancing to higher needs

achievement motivation

the drive to succeed, especially in competition with others. individuals who have a strong need for achievement seek out tasks that are moderately difficult

extrinsic motivation

based upon external rewards or threats of punishment

intrinsic motivation

based upon personal enjoyment of as task/activity

display rules

cultural norms that influence how and when emotional responses are delayed