APGOV vocab draft 2

What is a linkage institution?

Institutions that connect citizens to government and influence policy (political parties, elections, interest groups, and the media).

Define: democracy

A system of government where power comes from the people, either directly or through elected representatives.

Define: “equality in voting”

The principle that each citizen’s vote should count equally

Define: elitism

The theory that political power is held by a small group of elites (wealthy/connected) who make most key decisions.

Define: hyper-pluralism

A situation with so many competing interest groups that government becomes ineffective and policy-making stalls (gridlock).

Define: policy gridlock

A standstill where government has difficulty passing laws/acting because institutions or parties can’t agree.

Define: political culture

Shared values and beliefs about government and politics that shape political behavior in a nation.

Define: laissez-faire

An economic view that government should play a minimal role in the economy; free-market approach.

What is central to elitism?

The idea that power is concentrated in the hands of a few elites rather than widely shared.

Define: Three-Fifths Clause

Compromise counting each enslaved person as 3/5 of a person for representation and taxation purposes.

Define: Natural Rights

Rights people have by nature,not because of the government, such as life, liberty, and property.

What were the Articles of Confederation?

The first U.S. governing document with a weak central government and strong state power.

Who was the author of the Declaration of Independence?

primarily Thomas Jefferson

Define: Tyranny of the Majority

When the majority uses its power to harm the rights/interests of minorities or individuals.

How many amendments are there in the Constitution?

27 amendments.

Who was John Locke?

Enlightenment philosopher who argued natural rights and the social contract; government must protect rights and needs consent of the governed.

Who was James Madison?

“Father of the Constitution,” key framer and author of Federalist Papers; helped design checks and balances and supported the Bill of Rights.

What was the Connecticut Compromise?

created a two-house legislature for the U.S. Congress: the House of Representatives, with representation based on each state's population, and the Senate, with equal representation for every state

What is the Electoral College?

The system used for electing the president where states choose electors; electors cast the official votes (270 needed to win).

Explain: System of Checks and Balances

Each branch has powers to limit the others so no branch becomes too powerful.

Who originally coined the term “consent of the governed”?

John Locke (social contract theory; government’s legitimacy comes from the people’s consent).

What test is prohibited by the Constitution?

A religious test for holding public office is prohibited

Define: judicial interpretation

The power of courts to interpret the meaning of laws and the Constitution when deciding cases.

Define: Unitary System

A system where the national government holds most power and local governments only have powers it grants.

What is contained in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution?

enumerated powers of Congress (tax, spend, regulate commerce, declare war, etc.) and the Necessary and Proper Clause.

What is contained in Article VI of the Constitution?

Supremacy Clause, federal debts/treaties, oath of office requirement, and no religious test for office.

What is contained in the 10th Amendment?

Reserved powers: powers not delegated to the federal government belonging to the states or the people.

Define: cooperative federalism

“Marble cake” federalism: national and state governments share responsibilities and cooperate on policy.

Explain the Full Faith and Credit Clause

States must recognize other states’ public acts, records, and court decisions (with some limits).

Define: Block Grant

Federal money to states for broad purposes with flexibility in how states spend it.

Know: Gibbons v. Ogden

ruled that the federal government has the sole authority to regulate interstate commerce

Know: McCulloch v. Maryland

established that the federal government has implied powers (beyond just enumerated ones) via the Necessary & Proper Clause and that federal laws are supreme over state laws

Define: Dual Federalism

“Layer cake” federalism: clearer separation between national and state responsibilities.

Define: Mandate

A federal requirement that states/localities comply with certain rules, often tied to funding.

Define: Supremacy Clause

Federal Constitution, laws, and treaties override conflicting state laws.

shared powers between the federal and state governments

Concurrent powers: both can tax, make/enforce laws, build roads, run courts, provide services, etc.

Know: United States v. Lopez

Supreme Court case limiting Congress’s Commerce Clause power (struck down Gun-Free School Zones Act).

Define: Categorical Grant

Federal grant with strict rules for specific purposes; less state flexibility than block grants.

Know: The Enumerated Powers

Specific powers of Congress listed in Article I, Section 8.

Define: Privileges and Immunities Clause

States can’t unfairly discriminate against citizens of other states regarding fundamental rights.

Understand death penalty laws (Federal and State)

Capital punishment is allowed in some states and federally, but must follow due process and cannot be “cruel and unusual” (8th Amendment); procedures and limits come from Supreme Court rulings.

Define: Establishment Clause

part of the First Amendment, prohibits the government from establishing an official religion or favoring one religion over another

Define: Exclusionary Rule

Evidence obtained in violation of the 4th Amendment generally cannot be used in court.

Define: Incorporation Doctrine/ 14th Amendment connection

The Incorporation Doctrine connects the Bill of Rights to the Fourteenth Amendment by using its Due Process Clause to apply fundamental rights against state governments, not just the federal government

Define: Plea Bargain

Agreement where a defendant pleads guilty (often to a lesser charge) for a reduced sentence or dropped charges.

Define libel and slander

false statements that harm reputation: libel is written, slander is spoken

Know: The 14th Amendment

Defines citizenship and includes Due Process and Equal Protection foundation for incorporation and many civil rights cases.

Know: The 6th Amendment

Rights of the accused: speedy/public trial, impartial jury, notice of charges, confront witnesses, compulsory process, right to counsel.

Define: The Free Exercise Clause

1st Amendment: protects the right to practice religion, beliefs are strongly protected but actions may be limited by neutral laws

Know: The 1st Amendment

Protects freedoms of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition.

Define: Prior Restraint

Government censorship preventing speech/press before it occurs; usually unconstitutional.

Know: The Lemon Test

3-part Establishment Clause testing secular purpose, primary effect neither advances/inhibits religion, no excessive entanglement.

Know: Miranda Rights

the warnings police must give suspects in custody before interrogation: right to remain silent, statements can be used against you, right to an attorney

Know: Mapp v. Ohio

ruled that the exclusionary rule, which prevents a prosecutor from using evidence that was obtained by violating the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, applies to states as well as the federal government.

Know: D.C. v. Heller

Held the 2nd Amendment protects an individual right to possess a firearm for self-defense (especially in the home).

Define: Double Jeopardy

5th Amendment protection against being tried twice for the same offense after acquittal/conviction.

Define: Right to Privacy

An implied constitutional right protecting personal decisions/private life

Know: Barron v. Baltimore

ruled the Bill of Rights only applied to the federal government, not state or local governments, solidifying early American federalism, though this was later overturned by the Fourteenth Amendment

Define: Clear and Present Danger

Standard allowing limits on speech if it poses a serious, immediate threat (public safety/national security).

Where does one find “citizenship rights”?

Primarily in the 14th Amendment Citizenship Clause

Define: Equal Protection

14th Amendment clause requiring states to treat people equally under the law; key basis for civil rights rulings.

Know: The 15th Amendment

Prohibits denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

Define: Women’s Suffrage

The movement/right for women to vote; guaranteed nationally by the 19th Amendment.

Know: The Civil Rights Act of 1964

Banned discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin; ended segregation in public spaces and addressed employment discrimination.

Define: Jim Crow Laws

State/local laws enforcing racial segregation and discrimination, especially in the South after Reconstruction.

Know: Plessy v. Ferguson

Upheld segregation under “separate but equal” (later overturned by Brown).

Know: The 19th Amendment

Granted women the right to vote nationwide (ratified 1920).

Know: Regents of the University of California v. Bakke

ruled that race could be one factor in admissions for diversity, but strict racial quotas are unconstitutional.(overturned by Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard)

Know: Dred Scott v. Sandford

ruled that African Americans, enslaved or free, were not citizens and had no right to sue in federal court, and that Congress could not ban slavery in U.S. territories

Define: school busing/de facto segregation

Busing: transporting students to integrate schools.

De facto segregation: segregation in practice (housing patterns), not by law.

Know: Brown v. Board of Education

Declared school segregation unconstitutional; “separate” is inherently unequal.

Know: Korematsu v. United States

Upheld WWII Japanese American internment; widely criticized as a civil liberties failure.

Know: Lawrence v. Texas

ruled that U.S. state laws criminalizing private, consensual homosexual sex are unconstitutional.

What is the NAACP?

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People; civil rights organization using litigation and advocacy to fight discrimination.

What is the ADA?

Americans with Disabilities Act (1990): bans disability discrimination and requires accessibility/reasonable accommodations.

Define: Intermediate Scrutiny

a mid-level judicial test for laws, especially gender/sex discrimination, requiring the government to prove the law serves an important interest and is substantially related to achieving it.

Define: de jure segregation

Segregation required by law or official government policy.

What is Title IX?

Federal law banning sex discrimination in federally funded education programs; expanded equal access (including athletics).

What ethnic minority is the smallest in the U.S.?

Asian Americans

What does the U.S. have more of (conservatives, moderates, liberals)?

Moderates (largest group).

What percent of Americans voted in the 1014 midterms?

About 36% turnout (midterms are much lower turnout than presidential elections).

Know: The 1986 Simpson-Mazzoli Act

Immigration Reform and Control Act: increased enforcement, penalized employers for hiring undocumented workers, and granted legalization to some.Legalization for millions of existing undocumented immigrants, and increased border enforcement

Which group of Americans consumes the most political news?

Older Americans especially seniors

Define: Random Sampling

A sampling method where every member of the population has an equal chance of selection.

Know: Letter from a Birmingham Jail

MLK’s argument defending civil disobedience against unjust laws and criticizing calls to “wait.”

What do conservatives favor?

Limited government, lower taxes, free-market policies, traditional social values, and strong national defense/law-and-order.

What is “conventional political participation”?

Routine/legal participation like voting, volunteering, donating, contacting officials, attending lawful meetings/rallies.

What is: Reapportionment? Why do we need it?

Redistributing House seats among states after each census based on population changes; keeps representation aligned with population.

What increases with age in terms of politics?

Voter turnout and conventional political participation

Know the difference between liberals and conservatives

Liberals favor more government action to address social/economic problems; conservatives favor less government intervention and more tradition/market solutions.

Define: unconventional political participation

Nontraditional/disruptive actions like protests, boycotts, sit-ins, and civil disobedience.

What are the disadvantages of conducting opinion surveys via phone?

Low response rates, coverage bias (who gets reached), social desirability bias, and wording/timing effects.

What type of candidate do women tend to support?

Democratic candidates especially on social welfare/education/health issues.

Define: Mass Media

Communication outlets reaching large audiences (TV, radio, newspapers, major online news) that shape political information and agendas.

What is the FCC?

Federal Communications Commission; regulates interstate communications (radio, TV, cable, satellite, broadband).

What is the primary interest of private media?

Profit: attracting audiences for advertising/subscription revenue.

What is the overriding bias in the news?

A tendency toward negativity/conflict/scandal coverage because it draws attention and boosts engagement.

Define: Investigative Reporting

In-depth reporting that uncovers wrongdoing/corruption or hidden information.

Define: Narrowcasting

Targeting media content to nieche audiences instead of broad broadcasting.

News being available at greater speed has made it what?

more fragmented, superficial, and focused on "sound bites,"