AP Psychology Unit 9

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

nature vs. nurture

name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior

continuity vs. stages of development

There are two major theories about how people develop.

- On one hand, the continuity theory says that development is a gradual, continuous process.

- On the other hand, the discontinuity theory says that development occurs in a series of distinct stages.

stability vs. change

the debate about which early traits and characteristics persist through life or change

- our identities tend to be stable, but motivation allows us to seek experiences that allow us to changes and grow

Prenatal development

The baby's development during a pregnancy

zygote

conception to 2 weeks, rapid cell division

- prenatal development

embryo

2-8 weeks, organs begin to form, heart begins to beat

- prenatal development

fetus

2 months to birth, functional organs by 6 months,

- responses to noise
- prenatal development

sperm

When a woman's ovary releases one of her mature eggs, \_____ cells race to meet it until one penetrates the egg's surface

- when nucleus of both cells fuse, the zygote forms

Zygote

\________ travels down the fallopian tube and implants itself on the wall of the uterus, where placenta form

- the umbilical cord carries nourishment to zygote and waste to the placenta

2-8 weeks

embryo period

- vital organs begin to form
- major birth defects are often due to problems during this stage
- An amniotic sac protects the embryo and regulates temperature

9 weeks - birth

fetal period

- muscles and bones forms making fetus look human
- vital organs begin to function, and can support the fetus of 6 months
- during the last 3 months, the brain develops rapidly

month 5

- mother feels movement
- sucking, swallowing, and hiccuping appear
- soft hair, nails, and sweat glands form

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm and change the way their brain develops

- fetus alcohol syndrome

fetus alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking.

- In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features

smell

A newborn's sense of \______ is well-developed

- by 6 weeks, it can smell the difference between the mother and strangers

visual

\_______ acuity is poor at birth
- can focus best at 9 inches away

human

Infants prefer the sound and look of the \________ face

moro

arms extend when an infant feels a loss of support

palmar

hands grasps when palm is touched

rooting

an infant's response by turning when an object brushes its cheeks

- attempts to suck it

piaget

theorist that developed a series of stages in which an individual passes during cognitive development

- he theorized that what a child is able to do intellectually depends on the brain development

Assimilation

when individuals incorporate new information into existing knowledge

Accomidation

when individuals adjust their schemas to incorporate new information

Lev Vygotsky

thought children exposed to a enriching environment will develop more quickly

- he disagreed with Piaget's view that children are independent explorers of the environment

- proposed the zone of proxmial

- proposed the zone of proximal development

zone of proximal development

the difference between what children can do with assistance and what they can do alone

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

a spectrum of neurodevelopmental conditions

- causes difficulty with social relationships, communication skills, sensory overload, and difficulty with change

- caused by the interaction of genetics, prenatal, and early postnatal environmental factors

- may be classified as a difference, disability, or disorder, depending on its impact on the individual

proximodistal principle

children develop from their center outward, gaining control of their torso before their extremities

cephaocaudal principle

children develop in a head-to-foot direction, gaining control of the arms before their legs

Simon Baron-Cohen

theorized that autism is an extreme profile of the male brain, with greater hemisphere separation

- causes difficulty emphasizing, but extraordinary systeming ability, potentially making autism a misunderstood gift

Sensorimotor

describes Piaget's stage in which the child explores the world through interaction of his mouth and hands with the environment

- birth-18 months: children use their senses to explore
- develop kinesthesis and object permanence
- learn cause and effect, or that their behaviors have consequences

Preoperational

in Piaget's theory, the 2nd stage during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

- 2-7 years: symbolic thought develops as language is acquired
- magical and anthropomorphic thinking is common
- irreversibility, concentration, and geocentricism limit thought

Concrete operational

in Piaget's theory, the 3rd stage of cognitive development during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

- 7-12 years: children learn to think logically about objects and events
- the understand conservation, reversibility, decenter attention
- begin to deal in the concrete but not hypothetical

formal operational

in Piaget's theory, the 4th stage of cognitive development during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

- 12 years

object permanence

the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight

Attachment

an emotional connection that infants develop with their caregivers in the first months

- once object permanence developed, infants often go through stranger anxiety, clinging to parents when strangers are near

Konrad Lorenz

researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in geese, a concept he called imprinting

- theorized that the instinct is necessary for survival in some species
- having hatched, goslings have an 18 hour critical period when they will be bond to the first moving object they see
- once bonded, they can't bond to anything else

Harry Harlow

1905-1981; Field: development; Contributions: realized that touch is preferred in development; Studies: Rhesus monkeys, studied attachment of infant monkeys (wire mothers v. cloth mothers)

- wanted find whether attachment was connected to food or need of comfort
- learned body contact provided a secure base for the babies to explore from, he wanted to find the long term impacts of isolation

Human

\_______ babies don't imprint, but there's a sensitive period where they prefer a familiar

- parenting in the early years can impact a child's willingness to explore and their relationship later in life

Diana Baumrind

her theory of parenting styles had four main types (permissive, neglectful, authoritative, & authoritarian)

- she found that parental responsiveness predicts a child's well-being, social competence, academic performance, and psychosocial relationships

Permissive

lack of guidance may lead to immaturity or aggressive

neglectful

may promote independence or lack of motivation

authoritative

seen as the healthiest, promotes self-esteem and independence

authoritarian

over parenting may cause lower self-esteem and social competence

Parenting

\____________ is strongly influenced by cultural values and norms
- cultural norms will impact a child's values and adherence to social norms

Adolescence

transitional time between childhood and adulthood

- physiological changes accompany social and cognitive development

puberty

sexual maturation, and signals end of childhood

- hormones trigger puberty, marked by growth spurt in height and weight, and last 2 years
- both males and females experience asynchrony
- teens often measure themselves against an unrealistic ideal, which can lead to depression

Girls

\_____
- starts between 8-10
- develop layer of fat, breasts, and hips
- first period: menarche
- late maturing girls have an advantage, flips in high school
Boys
- starts between 9-16
- grow hair, larger genitals, thicker torso, and broad shoulders
- first ejaculation: spermarche
- early maturing boys have an advantage into adulthood

attraction

Sexual \____________ to others begin around age 10

- sexual attraction vary across time, place, and culture
- research shows that sexual behaviors does not conform to social norms

pruning

When applied to brain development, the process by which unused connections in the brain atrophy and die.

- the adolescent brain goes through this and disrupts judgment and impulse control

David Elkind

Theory of Adolescent Egocentrism — adolescents go through a stage of self-absorption that leads to only being able to see the world through one's own perspective; imaginary audience.

- also suggested adolescents experience problems because of an immature abstract thought process
- finding fault with authority figures
- argumentativeness
- indecisiveness
- hypocrisy
- self-consciousness
- invulnerability

Jean Piaget

Four stage theory of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor, 2. preoperational, 3. concrete operational, and 4. formal operational.

- He said that the two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth-assimilation and accomodation

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

Lawrence Kolberg

Identify the stages of moral development

- suggested that moral judgement progresses with age and primarily concerned with justice

- preconventional
- conventional
- postconventional

preconventional

Kohlberg's stage of moral development in which rewards and punishments dominate moral thinking

conventional

second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior

postconventional

third level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the person's behavior is governed by moral principles, thoughts, and opinions that might disagree is social norms

Carol Gilligan

1936-pres; Field: cognition; Contributions: maintained that Köhlberg's work was developed by only observing boys and overlooked potential differences between the habitual moral judgments of boys and girls

- girls focus more on relationships than laws and principles

Erik Erikson

1902-1994; Field: neo-Freudian, humanistic; Contributions: created an 8-stage theory to show how people evolve through the life span with their identity. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"

- studied adolescents who sought psychological treatment

James Marcia

psychologist who developed the four identity conditions that caused adolescents to progressively commit to a individual identity

- expanded on Weicxkson's work with identity confusion

Identity foreclosure

the status of adolescents who prematurely commit to an identity without adequately exploring alternatives

- Another Def: an identity that is assigned or adopted by default; without exploration

identity moratorium

Describes a person actively attempting to try to develop a unique set of values and an understanding of self in society

- Another Def: active searching and exploring alternatives after identity diffusion, like changing majors or relationships

identity diffusion

an apathetic state characterized by lack of both exploration and commitment

- Another Def: a time before an active exploration of one's identity

identity achievement

term for the attainment of identity, or the point at which a person understands who he or she is as a unique individual, in accord with past experiences and future plans

mating intelligence

how good you are at dating and forming romantic relationships

underestimate

Teen girls tend to \____________ their mating value

- while teen boys, especially athletes, tend to overestimate their mating value

Environmental

\_______________ stimulation at early childhood promotes brain development, allowing for early acquisitions of music, art, and language

- rats developed in enriched environments develop thicker cortices than those in impoverish environments
- Brain development continues through life

peer

As children begin to form \_____ groups, they begin to conform to group norms

- As they learn to cooperate, they take cues from the group on how to interact

Children

\________ not born in a safe or nurturing environment may face developmental delays

- young children don't have the capacity or language to express their pain

independent

As teens become \______________ of their parents, they many encounter conflicts as the relationship changes

- Parents want to protect their children, but the advice they offer feels like criticism to the teen who wants approval

Adolescents

\______________ spend most of their time in peer groups that reflect similar class lines and common interests

- Cliques gave teens an opportunity to find an identity and socialize, but may cause conflict if it clashes with family

While puberty occurs of earlier ages in the west, economic and social independence is delayed

Emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

- the period between adolescence and adulthood

Intersex

\__________ individuals are born without clearly defined sex characteristics

- doctors used to operate to define the more obvious or parent selected sex to female

- they are increasingly choosing to remain the way they were born

- the combination of sex-related genes, environment, and physiology results in behavioral and cognitive differences

Condoms

Half of all STIs are people of ages 25 or under

- most are "silent" with no obvious symptoms, and routine screening is uncommon

- \________ and frequent screening can help prevent STIs

Social

\________ factors are the biggest predictors of teenage sexual activity

- lack of information about birth control, social pressure, alcohol use, and media messages can influence sexual activity

restraint

Factors that predict sexual \__________ include high intelligence, religion, and involved father, and volunteer work

orientation

Evidence shows that sexual \___________ is largely a product of biology

- there's a slight difference in the brain of gay people, suggesting a genetic component or result of hormone exposure in the critical period like in the prenatal period

- the mother's immune system may play a role because men who have an older brother are somewhat more likely to be gay

- so far, there's no known environmental factor that causes changes in sexual orientation

secure attachment

a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver

ambivalent attachment

Pattern in which an infant becomes anxious before the primary caregiver leaves, is extremely upset during his or her absence, and both seeks and resists contact on his or her return.

avoidant attachment

infants who seem unresponsive to the parent when they are present, are usually not distressed when she leaves, and avoid the parent when they return

behavioral

Attachment researchers John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth represent which school of thought?

Albert Bandura

pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others;

- Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.

Mary Ainswroth

identified three attachment styles based on research using the Strange Situation: secure, avoidant, and insecure-ambivalent.

insecure ambivalent

during the Strange Situation test, the infant shows a great deal of anxiety, engages in little exploration, becomes distressed in the absence of the caregiver and in the presence of a stranger. Upon the return of the caregiver (the reunion), the infant is difficult to console.

insecure avoidant

child plays happily, child continues playing after mother leaves, child ignores mothers return

don't

Babies \_____ have an attachment to their parents immediately after birth

difficult

a child's general responsiveness marked by a more negative mood, intense responses, slow adaptation to change, and irregular patterns of eating, sleeping, and elimination

- \__________ babies are more irritable, intense, and unpredictable

- temperament

easy

a child's general responsiveness marked by positive mood, easy adaptation to change, and regularity and predictability in patterns of eating, sleeping, and elimination

- \____ babies are cheerful, relaxed, and predictable

- temperament

slow-to-warm

start off wary and then adjust well when comfortable

-\_____-__-\______ babies tend to withdraw or resist from new people and situations

- temperament

13

Separation anxiety tends to subside are around age \__ months

Trust vs. Mistrust

If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust

- Erikson's 1st stage

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities

- Erikson's 2nd stage

Initiative vs. Guilt

preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent

- Erikson's 3rd stage

industry vs inferiority

children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior

- Erikson's 4th stage

Indentity vs Confusion

teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are

- Erikson's 5th stage

intimacy vs isolation

young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated

- Erikson's 6th stage

Generativity vs. Stagnation

the middle-aged discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through a family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose

- Erikson's 7th stage

integrity vs despair

when reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure

- Erikson's 8th stage