Psych test 3

cognition

the mental activity associated with obtaining, converting, and using knowledge

concepts

mental representations of categories of objects, situations, and ideas that belong together based on their central features or characteristics

hierarchies of concepts

broad concepts can be broken down into concepts with more specific criteria

formal concepts

created through rigid and logical rules or features

natural concepts

results from experiences in daily life

prototypes

the ideal or most representative example of a natural concept

thinking

mental activity associated with coming to a decision, reaching a solution, or forming a belief

mental imagery

being able to imagine different sensory perceptions without a direct sensory input, mental manipulation of objects

problem solving

the variety of approaches that can be used to achieve a goal, procession from an initial state to a goal state

steps to solve a problem

1. understand 2. approach 3. evaluate

approaches for solving a problem

trial and error, heuristic, algorithm, insight

mental set

tendency to use strategies one has always used, even if they no longer work well in the situation

functional fixedness

when familiar objects can only be imagined to function in their normal or usual way

convergent thinking

focus on finding a single best solution to a problem

divergent thinking

the ability to devise many solutions to a problem

decision making

the cognitive process of choosing from alternatives that might be used to reach a goal

availability heuristic

predicts the likelihood of something happening based on how easily a similar type of event from the past can be recalled

representativeness heuristic

evaluates the degree to which the primary characteristics of a person or situation are similar to our prototype

confirmation bias

the tendency to look for evidence that upholds our beliefs and to overlook evidence that runs counter to them

hindsight bias

the mistaken belief that an outcome could have been predicted easily

the framing effect

occurs when the context of a problem influences the outcome of a decision

language

a system for using symbols (words, gestures, and sounds) to think and communicate

Phonemes

the basic building blocks of spoken language

morphemes

the fundamental units that bring meaning to language

syntax

rules concerning where to place words or phrases

semantics

rules used to bring meaning to words and sentences, context in which words appear

pragmatics

the social rules that help organize language

displacement

ability to talk and think about things not present

Whorf's Linguistic Relativity

different languages may reflect differences in thinking and perception

emotion

A psychological state that includes a subjective or inner experience, a physiological component, and a behavioral expression.

valance

how pleasant the emotion is

arousal

how energizing the emotion is

James-Lange Theory

stimuli in the environment trigger "basic" biological emotional responses, 6 basic emotions: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, surprise

Cannon-Bard Theory

stimuli in the environment cause changes in the body and in the mind at the same time, suggested basis is the thalamus routing information to the Cortez and limbic system simultaneously

Schachter-Singer Theory

each emotion does not have a unique essence, but there are underlying patterns of biological activity typical of each emotion

Cognitive Appraisal Theory

the interpretation of interactions with surroundings causes an emotional reaction

What is the purpose of emotions?

predicting behavior, information for approach/avoidance and action

display rules

framework or guidelines for when, how, and where an emotion is expressed

developmental psychology

examines age related physical, cognitive, and socioemotional changes across the entire lifespan.

Main categories

physical development, cognitive development, socioemotional development

Main debates

stages and continuity, nature and nurture, stability and change

Conception

sperm combines with an egg to form a single cell zygote

Genetic sex

sex as indicated by the presence of XX (female) or XY (male) chromosomes

genotype

an individual's complete collection of genes

phenotype

an individual's observable characteristics

Dominant gene

has power over the expression of an inherited characteristic

recessive gene

overpowered by a dominant gene

monozygotic twins

Identical twins who develop from one egg inseminated at conception, which then splits into two separate cells.

dizygotic twins

Fraternal twins who develop from two eggs inseminated by two sperm, and are as genetically similar as any sibling pair.

germinal stage

conception until the end of week 2

embryonic stage

weeks 3-8

fetal stage

week 9 to birth

teratogens

environmental agents that can damage the growing zygote, embryo, or fetus

infant-directed speech

a type of speech directed toward infants, characterized by short, simple sentences

schema

a collection of ideas that represent a basic unit of understanding

assimilation

using existing knowledge and ideas to understand new information and experiences

accommodation

a restructuring of old ideas to make a place for new information

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

egocentrism

when a person is only able to imagine the world from their own perspective

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

scaffolding

pushing children to go just beyond what they are competent and comfortable doing, while providing help in a decreasing manner

zone of proximal development

phase of learning during which children can benefit from instruction

temperament

characteristic differences in behavioral patterns and emotional reactions that are evident from birth

high reactive

exhibit a great deal of distress when exposed to unfamiliar stimuli

low reactive

do not respond to new stimuli with great distress

easy

follow regular schedules; easily soothed; transition easily

difficult

erratic schedule; poor transitioning; irritable and unhappy

slow to warm up

not fond of change, but will adapt with time

attachment

degree of emotional connection between child and caregiver

secure

mildly upset, but easily soothed upon reunion

avoidant

no distress, and no reaction on reunion

ambivalent

upset and unable to be soothed on reunion

authoritarian

overly controlling and lack of warmth

authoritative

set rules and boundaries, but in a loving way

permissive

no rules or boundaries, but very loving

uninvolved

emotionally detached and spend little time with their child

Puberty

the period during which the body changes and becomes sexually mature and able to reproduce (9-14)

adolescent egocentrism

the heightened self-consciousness of adolescents

adolescent brain

- Limbic system development occurs more quickly than prefrontal cortex.

- Result is that adolescents may not see possible consequences of reward-seeking activities.

socioemotional development in adolescence

development of identity, we make decisions to engage in activities related to evolving identity

genetic sex

one's biological status (XX or XY)

Gender

the dimension of masculinity and felinity based on social, cultural, and psychological characteristics

Gender identity

the feeling or sense of where you belong on the spectrum of gender and compatibility, contentment, and conformity with one's gender

young adulthood

(20-40 years) focus on creating meaningful and deep relationships, cognitive processing speed begins to decline, sensory and muscular systems are healthy, fertility-related changes occur in late 30s

middle adulthood

(40-60 years) focus on making a positive impact in the world, physical alterations in appearance and bones weaken, menopause and andropause, declines in hearing and vision

Late adulthood

(60 years and up) focus on looking back on life, decline physically, cognitively, and in sensory abilities, emotional stability increases

Personality

the unique core set of characteristics that influence the way one thinks, acts, and feels

theoretical perspective of personality

psychoanalytic, humanistic, behavioral, social-cognitive, trait

psychoanalytic perspective

events and conflicts from childhood shape adult personality

3 levels of consciousness

unconscious, preconscious, conscious

Id

biological drives, unconscious

Ego

manipulates situations, plans for the future, solves problems, and make decisions, conscious

Superego

guides behavior to follow the rules of society, patents, or other authority figures, preconscious

defense mechanisms

unconscious processes the ego uses to distort perceptions and memories and thereby reduce anxiety created by the id-superego conflict

sublimation

redirecting unacceptable impulses into acceptable outlets