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Democratic Deficiency
Perceived deficiency in the way a particular democratic body works, in terms of accountability and control over policy-making
YouGov Poll for Sky (2024) results
49% of respondents say they “almost never” trust the British government to place needs of nation above own interests - up from 26% in 2019
73% of voters believe politicians don’t care about what people like them think - up from 51% in 2019
67% think that politicians in Westminster ignore the issues they care about - up from 50% in 2019
Michelle Mone - MedPro PPE Scandal
During COVID, accused of cronyism and mismanagement for own personal interests
Baroness Mone recommended MedPro, a PPE firm linked with her husband, and it was fast-tracked through the gov. ‘VIP lane’ and awarded contracts of over £200M for supplying PPE to the NHS
Subsequent investigations found significant transfer of funds, including at least £65M of profit from these contracts, to offshore accounts, some of which benefitted Mone directly
Corruption - contributed to mistrust of politicians among the public
MPs Second Jobs and Freelance Work (2022/23)
Guardian reported in 2023 that MPs were paid £10M from second jobs and freelance work
Sajid Javid earned £300,000 a year as an adviser to Jersey-based investment firm Centricus Partners
Boris Johnson made £4.8M from speaking opportunities and consulting
Reform MP Lee Anderson paid £100,000 per year for hosting a show on GB News, for just 8 hours of work per week
MPs elected without General Election
Both Liz Truss and Rishi Sunday were made PM through internal party processes, rather than beating the opposite in an election
Rather than receiving support as head of their party in a General Election, they were selected. By less than 200,000 Conservative Party MPs
Both have played a pivotal role in shifting policy away from Conservative Party’s 2019 manifesto, e.g. Lizz Truss’ neoliberal mini budget and Rishi Sunak cancelling HS2
Undermining mandate
Cameron’s Appointment as Foreign Secretary (2023)
Undermines democracy - not elected
Made a peer by Sunak for the sole purpose of serving in his government
Won’t be subject to scrutiny from elected MPs, as he won’t face regular questioning by MPs during usual Foreign Office questions as a member of the HoL
Was unpopular when he left politics, and involved in the Greensil lobbying scandal, which further undermined public trust
By-Elections since the 2019 Election - MP Misconduct
Between 2019 and 2024, there were 23 by-elections, the majority of which were triggered due to MPs being forced to resign for breaking the law/ severe misconduct
2024 Tory MP Peter Bone - Wellingborough, suspended for bullying and sexual harassment allegations
2024 Tory MP Scott Benton - Blackpool South, suspended for breaching lobbying rules, exposed by the Times for offering to leak documents and ask questions for a fake gambling company
2022 Tory MP Neil Parish - Tiverton and Honiton, resigned after admitting to watching pornographers twice in the HoC
2021 Labour MP Mike Hill - Hartlepool, resigned amid allegations of sexual harassment and victimisation
Positive Democratic Features of UK Political System
Devolved gov in Wales, NI and Scotland, as well as elected mayors in major cities; decisions closer to the people
Use of referendums
Independent judiciary
Free media, politically neutral broadcast media and free access to the internet
Free, fair and relatively regularly elections
Wide range of parties and pressure groups
Arguments for UK Democratic Deficit
FPTP system - means little representation for minority viewpoints in parliament. Also very unrepresentative in general, resulting in representatives and governments with limited legitimacy
General elections produce unrepresentative results; in 2024, the Labour Party won with only 33.7% of the vote
HoL is unelected and can still exercise power and halt bills proposed by Commons
Lack of protection of citizen’s rights - ECoHR provides inadequate guarantees (e.g. Rwanda Policy)
Control of sections of media by wealthy, unaccountable business interests, e.g. Rupert Murdoch
Many members of the HoC can be seen ads looking out for themselves and their careers rather than caring about representation, e.g. MPs having second jobs and going into lobbying after leaving politics
Who can vote in UK Elections?
All adults over 18 who are registered
British and Irish citizens have reciprocal rights to vote in each other’s countries
Commonwealth citizens are allowed to vote, as are UK nationals who have lived abroad for less than 15 years
Who can’t vote in UK Elections?
People under the age of 18
EU citizens (except those from the ROI) although they can vote in local elections
Members of the HoLs
Prisoners
Those who are convicted of a corrupt or illegal electoral practice, who are barred for 5 years
People who are compulsorily detained in a psychiatric hospital
Types of Constituencies Pre 1832
Two types of constituencies - boroughs (towns) and countries, which varied considerably in size
Counties - right to vote was only granted to those who freehold property worth at least 40 shillings
Boroughs - right to vote varied according to a range of local rules and traditions. In some boroughs, all freemen were allowed to vote, whereas in others it depended on property ownership or the payment of local tax
Problems with Pre 1832 Political System
Distribution of seats had not kept up with economic growth and population movement, so some very small boroughs still retained a historic right to vote in MPs while large emerging industrial towns had no representation of their own
Plural voting allowed wealthy men who owned property in more than one constituency to vote more than once
Women were disenfranchised
By the early 19th century, the electorate totalled 400,000 (all men) compared to a population of around 10M
Great Reform Act 1832
Abolished the separate representation of underpopulated boroughs and created seats for urban boroughs such as Manchester
Extended the vote to hold more people in the counties; including tenant farmers and smaller property holders
Created a standard qualification for the franchise in the boroughs, so it now applied to all male householders living in properties who paid a yearly rental of £10 or more (growing middle class thanks to industrial rev)
The vote increased to an estimated 650,000 (approx. 5% of adult population) - compared to around 400,000 in early 1800s
Chartist Movement
Grew out of the failure of the 1832 Great Reform Act to extend the vote to those who didn’t own property. It was a mass movement driven by the working classes and continued for 2 decades
Campaigned for the franchise to be extended to all men over 21, a secret ballot, payment of MPs and annual parliamentary elections, among other things
1858 changes
All men over 21 could become an MP whether or not they owned property
1867 Second Reform Act
Introduced secret ballot
Decreased the bribery and bullying involved in voting
1884 Third Reform Act
Gave most working men the vote
18% of the population and 2/3 men
By 1885
Constituencies had to have an equal number of votes
The Suffragists (1800s-1918)
1897 - establishment of the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) under the leadership of Millicent Fawcett - mainly middle class women
They believed in non-violent methods of persuasion, e.g peaceful demonstrations, petitions and lobbying MPs
There was evidence that opinion was changing, however for more radical campaigners progress was too slow
The Suffragettes
Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) set up in 1903 by Emmeline Pankhurst, a former suffragist
Attracted both working-class and middle-class support and used more militant tactics; aiming to attract publicity and pressure on parliament through attacks on well known institutions and disruption of political meetings and other prominent male-dominated activities
E.g. Emily Davison threw herself under the king’s horse at Epsom Derby
Suspended campaign following outbreak of WW1
Effectiveness of the Suffrage Movement
Some historians argue that the quiet, undramatic work of the suffragists has not been recognised and the violent methods of the suffragettes alienated potential supporters
Others argue that while the suffragette movement was vital in keeping the issue of voting rights on the agenda in the decade before WW1
Another argument is that the role of women in WW1 proved to the gov their fitness for the vote
1918 Representation of the People Act
Granted all men over 21 and all women over 30 who were householders or wives of householders the vote
75% of adult population could now vote
It was passed as there was growing pressure to give all working class men the vote (following service in WW1)
Further Reform - Votes at 16
Votes at 16 Coalition formed in 2003 and found early success as they secured a study of the issue by the Electoral Commission
Though the report came down on the side of no change, several MPs kept the issue alive in the HoC
In 2014, 16 and 17 year olds were allowed to vote in the Scottish Independence Referendum, and the Scottish Parliament voted a year later to allow them to vote in their elections
In the 2024 election, the Labour Party supported votes at 16
Arguments for Votes at 16
16 year olds have other legal rights; leaving school, starting work and joining the army - should therefore be deemed mature enough to vote as well
Enfranchising 16 year olds would increase political participation
Social media has lead to increased political awareness among the young and they have led recent political movements such as the Fridays for Future climate strikes
The granting of the vote to 16-17 year olds in Scottish elections has led to increased political engagemen
Having a vote would give 16 year olds a say on issues that mean a lot to them such as university tuition fees
Arguments Against Votes at 16
16 year olds lack the necessary life experience and maturity to vote. They are still children and have to still be in education or training
Many know little about politics and would misuse the right to vote - better political education is needed first
More likely to be taken in by fake news and extreme politics (e.g. rising communist movement among youth)
Some of the legal rights 16 year olds have are limited in practice
Relatively few countries grant 16 year olds the right to vote, so the UK is not abnormal
Voter turnout is very low among 18-24 year olds and there’s little evidence that the majority of 16–17 year olds want the vote
E-Voting and Digital Democracy
Digital democracy refers to the use of social media by groups that seek to spread influence
They help to inform the public more effectively than traditional media about political issues
Allow organisations with modest financial and administrative resources to mount political campaigns and spread their views
Allow people to participate more readily and effectively in political action - by becoming more informed, expressing political views and taking part in polls
They have become key channels of communication between the government and the governed
E-Petitions in the UK
If an e-petition receives over 10,000 signatures it will get a response from the gov and if it receives 100,000 and is backed by an MP, it is considered for debate in parliament
Revoke Article 50 petition of March 109 received over 6M signatures
The Ban all ISIS Members from Returning to the UK petition received around 600,000 signatures and was debated in parliament
In 2011, a petition calling fror the release of all documents relating to the Hillsborough disaster of 1989 resulted in a debate in parliament, and the release of the papers and the launch of a new inquest
Websites such as 38 Degrees also have e-petitions, and while they can’t force parliament to debate anything, can pressure gov and opposition and provide evidence of public support
E-Petition on Maternity Pay (2023)
E-petition titled “Increase statutory maternity pay in line with the cost of living crisis” received over 38,000 signatures
The petition reached the required threshold of signatures and was debated by the Petitions Committee on June 19th 2023
Debate emphasised the financial struggles faced by families with new babies
The gov responded with an enhancement to maternity pay, increasing the flat rate of statutory maternity pay from £156.66 to £172.48 per week, a 10.1% increase
Arguments that e-democracy and digital democracy enhance democracy
Increase political participation by bringing in people who don’t have the inclination, ability or time to participate in more conventional ways such as party or pressure group membership
Inform the electorate
Communicate directly between gov and governed
Enhance pluralism by preventing powerful, elitist groups who have concentrated power from having exclusive access to gov
Arguments that e-democracy/ digital democracy threaten democracy
Give public greater access to extremist groups, such as those who are racist and those who promote violence
Disinformation is a big problem, with lies having the ability to affect election results
Gov may be influenced by short-term, ‘populist’ campaigns that don’t reflect wider, national public opinion
Arguments for Compulsory Voting
Voting is a social duty as well as a right; it encourages people to be engaged in politics
Would make parliament more representative of the population
Politicians would have to run their campaigns with the whole electorate in mind
It would still be legal to spoil one’s ballot paper and not vote for any candidate
Arguments against Compulsory Voting
In a preferential voting system, where candidates need to be ranked, it may lead to many putting them down in order they are presented (donkey voting)
Undemokratisch to force people and should be a matter of choice
Wouldn’t stop politicians focusing their campaigns on marginal seats and neglecting safe seats
It doesn’t address the deeper reasons why people decide not to vote
Arguments for Prisoner Vote
Voting is a fundamental right and shouldn’t be removed
In Hirst v UK (2005), the ECHR ruled that a blanket ban on British prisoners exercising the right to vote is contrary to the European Convention on Human Rights. The court did not state that all prisoners should be given voting rights, but that the UK needed to justify its departure from universal suffrage
Losing the vote is unlikely to be a deterrent to crime
Losing the vote also removes civic responsibility from prisoners, which further alienates them from society and damages rehabilitation
Arguments against Prisoner Vote
Prisoners are criminals and have therefore forfeit the right to have a say in how society is run
Prisoners should have no say in the criminal justice system especially
Due to the nature of constituencies under FPTP, prison votes would have a significant impact on some constituencies
Voter Turnout in Elections (Participation Crisis)
Voter turnout in recent UK General Elections has been a great deal less than the average between 1945 and 1997, which was 76%
In the 2024 General Election it was just 59.8%
Turnout is even lower in so-called ‘second order’ elections and referendums such as those for devolved bodies and councils
Low turnout means gov is elected on a reduced share of the popular vote, calling the strength of the mandate into question
One explanation for lower voter turnout is political apathy; a lack of awareness/ interest in political issues
Party Membership (Participation Crisis)
Only 1.6% of electorate now belongs to a political party, compared to 3.8% in 1983 (differs party to party)
Tory Party has an estimated 100,000 members today, a significant drop from approx. 400,000 in mid 1990s
Labour Party’s membership fell from 500,000 under Corbin to 370,000 today
Less traditional political involvement could be associated with a negative perception of MPs, due to various scandals and promises being broke
Other Methods of Political Participation (Participation Crisis)
Other forms of political involvement are arguably less important - can be ignored
Suggests less confidence in political system
Elections (No Participation Crisis)
The 2014 Scottish Independence referendum and 2016 EU referendum had turnouts of 84.6% and 72.2% respectively, showing there is still significant engagement surrounding critical issues
Suggests population is engaged on important political issues but vote less in elections due to distrust of politicians (e.g. 2010 Expenses Scandal, Partygate, MP’s second jobs, etc.)
OR ‘Hapathy’ (happiness + apathy) - people are generally content and don’t need to push for change, explaining low turnout in 2001 an 2005 elections, when UK economy was in boom, but not low turnout of 2010 and 2024
Party Membership (No Participation Crisis)
Surge in Labour Party membership in 2015, when Milliband lowered fees to £3, with the party rising to over 500,000 members
Following Indyref1, membership of SNP surged - over 125,000 members in April 2018
Increase in membership of UKIP in run up to 2015 General Election, with nearly 50,000 members
Public will use parties as a vehicle for political action if they are proposing some kind of radical change - political action has shifted to single-issue politics
Other Methods (No Participation Crisis)
Pressure group membership has been on the increase
Many demonstrations have been well attended on issues such as the Iraq War (2001), Brexit and the climate crisis - direct action rather than conventional politics
Social media has allowed people - especially the young - to participate in politics online without engaging with it in the real world
E-petitions on specific political issues regularly receive hundreds of thousands of signatures, e.,g, Revoke Article 50 petition of March 2019 has over 5.5M signatures
Case Study: Protests for a Ceasefire in Gaza
Throughout 2024, consistent protests in London and across the UK for an immediate ceasefire in Gaza and to put pressure on Israeli gov to end the war
Important in pressuring both Labour and Tory parties to weaken their support for the war, with Labour moving in Feb 2024 to support an ‘immediate humanitarian ceasefire’ and Tory foreign secretary David Cameron calling for de-escalation
Reforms to Improve Participation
Increase turnout by making it easier to vote; changing day of election from Thursday to weekend, allowing people to vote anywhere in their constituency, allowing voting to take place over several days
Encourage wider use of postal voting and introduce e-voting, BUT these increase risks of cyberattacks, voter fraud and intimidation
Scottish Independence Referendum (2014) Turnout
84.6%
Brexit Referendum (2016) Turnout
72.2%
