Pschology Exam 2

Learning

the process of acquiring through new experience new and relatively enduring information or behavior

Associative Learning

learning that certain events occur together

Classical Conditioning

learn to associate two stimuli and thus anticipate events

Stimulus

any event or situatiom that evokes a response

Respondent Behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Unconditioned Stimulus

stimulus that unconditionally, that is, naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response

Unconditioned Response

an unlearned, naturally occuring response to an unconditioned stimulus

Neutral Stimulus

stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus

an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Conditioned Response

a learned response to a previously neutral, but now conditioned, stimulus

Extinction

diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs whenan US does not follow CS

Spontaneous Recovery

reappearance, after a pause, of a conditioned response

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Phobias

extreme fear of or aversion to something

Operant Conditioning

a type of learning in which behvior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punished

Law of Effect

rewarded behaviors tend to reoccur

Biological Constraints

evolved biological tendencies that predispose animals’ behavior and learning

Cognitive Map

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment

Latent Learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Intrinsic Motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

Extrinsic Motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a behavior

Mirror Neurons

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing others do so

Memory

learning that persists over time

Recall

retrieve information learned earlier

Recognition

identify items previously learned

Relearning

amount of time saved when learning information again

Sensory Memory

the brief storage of sensory information

Short Term Memory

place where small amounts of information can be stored briefly

Long Term Memory

memory that persists over time (days, weeks, years)

Explicit Memory

knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered

Episodic Memory

firsthand experiences we have had

Semantic Memory

our knowledge of facts and concepts about the world

Implicit Memory

memory that does not require conscious awareness

Procedural Memory

motor and cognitive skills (riding a bike)

Priming Memory

enhanced identification of objects or words

Effortful Processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Chunking

the process of organizing information into smaller groupings, thereby increasing the number of items that can be held in short term memory

Maintenance Rehearsal

the process of repeating information mentally or out loud with the goal of keeping it in memory

“Tip of the Tongue”

when we’re certain we know something but cannot come up with it

Context Dependent Learning

increase in retrieval is situation/location in which information was learned

Retroactive Interference

when learning something new impairs our ability to retrieve something that was learned earlier

Proactive Interference

when earlier learning impairs our ability to encode information that we try to learn later

Recency Effect

will remember last names in a list of words read to them better

Primacy Effect

after a delay, individuals will better remember the first words in a list of words they were asked to remember

Anterograde Amnesia

an inability to form new memories

Retrograde Amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past

Reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

Misinformation Effect

when misleading information has corrupted one’s memory of an event

Spacing Effect

the fact that learning is better when the same amount of study is spread out over periods of time

Testing Effect

self-testing does more than assess learning, it improves it

Intelligence

the ability to think, to learn from experience, to solve problems, and adapt to new situations

Intelligence Quotient

a number/score representing a person’s reasoning ability compared to the average for their age

Alfred Binet

interested in slow learners and fast learners, mental age

Charles Spearman

developed the general intelligence factor

LL Thurstone

disagreed with idea of one intelligence factor, believed there were 7 aspects of intelligence (g)

General Intelligence Factor

a general intelligence factor that underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

Fluid Intelligence

ability to learn new ways of solving problems and doing activities

Crystallized Intelligence

accumulated knowledge of the world we have gained throughout our lives

Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory

the structure of human cognitive abilities

Sternberg’s 3 Intelligences

analytical, creative, and practical

Emotional Intelligence

perceiving emotions, understanding emotions, managing emotions, and using emotions to enable adaptive or creative thinking

Aptitude Test

designed to predict a persons’ future performance or capacity to learn

Achievement Test

designed to assess what a person has learned

Reliability

yields consistent results

Stereotype Threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

Algorithm

methodical, logical rule or procedure for solving a problem

Heuristic

simpler strategy for problem-solving that allows us to make judgments

Insight

sudden realization of a problem’s solution

Confirmation Bias

tendency to search for information that supports our ideas and ignore contradictory info

Availability Heuristic

estimating likelihood of an event based on what comes to mind

Over confidence

tendency to be more confident than correct

Framing

the way an issue is posed, which can affect decisions and judgments

Convergent Thinking

narrowing available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Divergent

expanding the number of possible problem solutions

Phonemes

smallest unit of sound in a language

Morphemes

smallest unit of meaning in a language

Grammar

rules for combining sounds/words to make meaningful speech

Generativity

speakers compose new sentences they have not heard before

Broca’s Area

an area in the frontal lobe responsible for speech/language production

Broca’s Aphasia

damage to Broca’s area causes difficulty producing speech

Wernicke’s Area

an area in the temporal lobe responsible for language reception

Wernicke’s Aphasia

damage to Wernicke’s area causes difficulty understanding/receiving language

Emotion

mental and physiological feeling state that directs our attention and guides our behavior

Motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

Instinct

a complex behavior that must have a fixed pattern throughout a species and be unlearned

Drive-Reduction Theory

physiological need creates a tension state (drive) that motivates organism to satisfy (reduce) the need

Homeostasis

tendency to maintain balanced or constant internal state

Arousal Theory

human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but to seek optimum levels of arousal

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

physiological needs met before other human needs, like belonging and esteem

Zajonc Theory of Emotion

soem responses are instantaneous, without cognitive appraisal

Lazarus Theory of Emotion

cognitive appraisal sometimes occurs without awareness and influences emotion

Facial Feedback Effect

activating one of the smiling muscles can make stessful situations less upsetting

Stress

non-specific response of the body to any demand for change

Tend-and-Befriend

responding to stress with social affiliation and nurturing behavior towards offspring

Coping

efforts to reduce stress including thoughts, behaviors, and emotions

Learned Helplessness

passivity/resignation when an animal or person is unable to avoid repeated negative events

Positive Psychology

scientific study of human flourishing with goal of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues

Subjective Well-Being

self-perceived satisfaction with life