Historical Developments

People around the world developed a new sense of commonality based on language, religion, social customs, and territory (nationalism). This was sometimes harnessed by governments to foster a sense of unity. Discontent with monarchist and imperial rule encouraged the development of systems of government and various ideologies, including democracy and 19th-century liberalism.

Comparing Atlantic Revolutions

• Shared a set of common ideas

• Atlantic basin = world of intellectual and cultural exchange

• Ideas that animated the Atlantic revolutions derived from the European Enlightenment

• Ideas were shared via: newspapers, books, pamphlets

• At heart was radical notion that human political and social arrangements could be engineered and improved by human actions

• Conventional and long-established ways of thinking (i.e. divine right of kings, state control of trade, aristocratic privilege, authority of a single church, etc) came under attack

American Revolution (1775-89)

• Launched the Declaration of Independence in 1776

• Generated a federal constitution in 1787

• Joined thirteen formerly separate colonies into a new nation

• First in a series of upheavals in the Atlantic world

• But what really changed?

• It was a movement to preserve the existing liberties of the colonies rather than create new ones.

• Britain needed money after its war with France which ran up their national debt

• British authorities looked to make up these losses in the American colonies through the use of taxes and tariffs

• Britain was exercising its imperial power without offering the American colonies representation in the British parliament

• American colonists were upset & armed with ideas of the Enlightenment (popular sovereignty, natural rights, consent of the governed) – they went to war

• By 1781 they had prevailed with help from the French (who were ironically still a monarchy themselves)

• For much of the 17th and 18th centuries, the British colonies in North America had a great deal of autonomy

• The British gov’t had its own internal conflicts which allowed N. American colonies to be dominated by the wealthier property-owning settles – gave them something close to self-government.

• Colonists came to regard such autonomy as a birthright and part of their heritage

• No one wanted to break away b/c British Empire provided many advantages (protection in war, access to British markets, etc) – few drawbacks

George Washington- was commander in chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and served two terms as the first U.S. president, from 1789 to 1797. Helped write the US Constitution.

Things Were Pretty Good in the US (all things considered)

• Class distinctions were real and visible (small class of wealthy “gentleman” still pretty much ran everything)

• Even so, the large availability of land (after kicking the Native Americans off of it), scarcity of people, and absence of both a titled nobility and a single established church meant that social life was more open than in Europe

• No legal distinctions differentiated clergy, aristocracy, and commoners as they did in France

• All free men enjoyed the same status before the law – excluding black slaves & white women

• Made for less poverty & more economic opportunity, fewer social differences/conflicts than in Europe

The French Revolution (1789-1815)

• French soldiers returned from assisting America full of republican enthusiasm

• France was also bankrupt from assisting the Americans in their war against Britain

• King Louis XVI (not to be confused with Louis XIV – the Sun King) – knew there needed to be tax reform so he called the Estates General which contained representatives from the three “estates” or legal orders

• Three estates = the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners

• First two estates = 2% of the population, everyone else fell into the “commoners” category

• French Revolution was driven by sharp conflicts within French society

• Members of the nobility resented the monarchy’s efforts to subject them to new taxes

• The growing middle class (doctors, lawyers, merchants) resented the rights of the aristocracy, from which they were barred

• These gave the French Revolution a much more violent, far-fetching, and radical character than the American Revolution

End of the Monarchy? Louis XVI

Louis XVI-was the last king of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution

Marie Antoinette-the last queen of France before the French Revolution

• 3rd estate, taxed the most, least amount of money

• No representation in government

• Ruler who did not care about the people's concerns (natural rights)

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

• In 1789, representatives of the Third Estate formed their own special group called the National Assembly, claiming the sole authority to make laws for the country

  • Their motto was “life, liberty and fraternity”

• A few weeks later they drew up the Declaration of  the Rights of Man and Citizen which declared that “men are born and remain free and equal in rights”

Articles

1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.

2. The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.

3. The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No body nor individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation.

4. Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything which injures no one else; hence the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits except those which assure to the other members of the society the enjoyment of the same rights. These limits can only be determined by law.

5. Law can only prohibit such actions as are hurtful to society. Nothing may be prevented which is not forbidden by law, and no one may be forced to do anything not provided for by law.

6. Law is the expression of the general will. Every citizen has a right to participate personally, or through his representative, in its foundation. It must be the same for all, whether it protects or punishes. All citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally eligible to all dignities and to all public positions and occupations, according to their abilities, and without distinction except that of their virtues and talents.

7. No person shall be accused, arrested, or imprisoned except in the cases and according to the forms prescribed by law. Any one soliciting, transmitting, executing, or causing to be executed, any arbitrary order, shall be punished. But any citizen summoned or arrested in virtue of the law shall submit without delay, as resistance constitutes an offense.

Storming of Bastille

• July 14th, 1789

• The National Assembly, takes on the Bastille prison

• They use guns and cannons to take over the Bastille

• This is seen as a symbol of legitimacy to the causes of the 3rd estate

• Powerful symbol of the revolution

Escape Plans Fail

• Louis XVI tries to flee France

  • Advisors warned him he and

his family was in danger

• He thought it was unsafe, so he fled the country… well he tried…

• As the royal family approached the border of France, they were caught and were brought back to Paris

• This stunt increased the influence of radical enemies in the government, thus sealing his fate..

Limited Monarchy Formed

• National Assembly creates a limited monarchy in France

• Strips the King of most of his authority

• Gave them the power to create laws and declare war, however, King could still enforce the laws

• Splits the legislative assembly into 3 parts

• Radicals, Moderates and Conservatives

• Each group had different viewpoints and thus causes friction amongst the legislative assembly

Reign of Terror

• In 1793, King Louis XVI and his queen, Marie  Antoinette were executed – shocked traditionalists across Europe

• This began the Reign of Terror from 1793-1794 – led by Maximilien Robespierre and his Committee of Public Safety

• Tens of thousands deemed enemies of the revolution lost their lives on the guillotine

• Eventually Robespierre himself was arrested and guillotined, accused of leading France into tyranny and dictatorship

Maximilien Robespierre

• The French lawyer and political leader

• Became one of the most influential figures of the French Revolution and the principal exponent of the Reign of Terror.

Committee of Public Safety

• Started by Robespierre in the summer of 1793

• Decided who should be considered enemies of the public.

• Those accused of treason were tried by the Committee’s Revolutionary Tribunal

French Revolution vs. American Revolution

• French Revolution also differed from the American Revolution in the way its influence spread

• U.S. became a world power at the end of the 19th century

• France spread through conquest under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte (1799-1814)

• Napoleon is credited with taming the revolution

• Napoleon preserved many of the more moderate elements such as civil equality, secular law code, religious freedom, and promotion by merit

• He kept the revolution’s emphasis on social equality but dispensed with liberty

• Created Europe’s largest empire seen since the Roman Empire

• Napoleon was eventually brought down by resistance from Russia and Britain

Napoleon Bonaparte

Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

• Napoleon Bonaparte:

  • born in Corsica,

  • attends military school, then joins army,

  • appointed commander of armies by Directory,

  • wins stunning victories in Italy, gaining popularity; news of his defeats in Egypt is suppressed

  • in 1795, Napoleon defeats royalist rebels attacking National Convention,

  • In 1799, carries out coup d’état (seizure of power), overthrows Directory.

Napoleon’s Rise to Power

• At the outbreak of the Revolution Napoleon was a very eager lieutenant

• Supporter of the Jacobins and the more extreme revolutionaries

• By 1799 his military success moved him into the political scene

  • With Napoleon’s help the Directory was overthrown and by 1802 Napoleon takes the title as Consul

Self-Made Emperor

• Two years after taking the title as Consul Napoleon had acquired enough power to assume the title of Emperor

• As Napoleon gained more power he insisted on the support of the people

  • By taking a plebiscite (PLEEHB ih sit) or ballot to say yes or no

Napoleon Creates an Empire

• In 1801, Napoleon attempts to retake colony of Saint Domingue but fails; he gives up on the Americas and concentrates on Europe; sells the Louisiana Territory to United States for $15 million in 1803.

• Britain, Russia, Austria, Sweden join forces against Napoleon; Napoleon crushes enemy forces in several brilliant battles; Napoleon forces Austria, Russia, Sweden to sign peace treaties.

• In 1805, British win Battle of Trafalgar—ensures British naval superiority; this defeat forces Napoleon to give up plan of invading Britain; looks for another way to control Britain.

• Napoleon controls Europe except for Britain, Portugal, Sweden, Ottomans; has puppet rulers/family members on the throne in some countries, alliances with others; French Empire reaches largest extent from 1807 to 1812.

France Under Napoleon

• Napoleon consolidated his power by strengthening the central government.

• Order, security, and efficiency replaced liberty, equality, and fraternity as the slogans of the new regime.

• To fix economy, he sets up national banking system, efficient tax collection; establishes lycées – government run public schools to train officials; signs concordat— agreement—with pope restoring Catholicism in France

• Napoleon developed a new law code, the Napoleonic Code:

  • Equality for all citizens

  • Religious toleration

  • Advancement based on merit

A Preview of Things to Come

• Napoleon’s conquests aroused nationalistic feelings across Europe and contributed to his eventual downfall.

• Napoleon strikes Britain through blockade—forced closing of ports; Continental System—Napoleon’s economic plan to strengthen Europe and weaken Britain by blockading British ports.

• Britain alone remained outside Napoleon’s empire – he was unsuccessful in trying to control Britain

  • Battle of Trafalgar – Napoleon's navy destroyed by Adm. Horatio Nelson, destroys any hope of invading and conquering England

• Smugglers and uncooperative allies make France’s blockade fail; Britain responds with blockade of its own, led by its stronger navy; Americans fight Britain in War of 1812; war does no major damage to Britain.

Wars on the Peninsula and in Russia

• Napoleon sends troops across Spain to attack Portugal, causing protest; Napoleon makes his brother king of Spain, making things worse

• Spanish fight as guerrillas—small groups that attacked and then disappear; British aid Spanish guerrillas; Napoleon loses 300,000 soldiers during this Peninsular War; Nationalist rebels fight the French in other conquered territories.

• Relations with Russia break down, Napoleon decides to invade; in June 1812, Napoleon’s army marches into Russia with 420,000 men; Russians use scorched-earth policy—destroying crops, livestock.

• In September 1812, Russians retreat from Moscow after Battle of Borodino; Napoleon finds Moscow abandoned and burning; Napoleon retreats, losing thousands of soldiers to raids, cold weather.

The Retreat from Russia

Downfall and The “Hundred Days”

• Britain, Prussia, Sweden, Russia, Austria join forces against Napoleon; Napoleon raises another army, but meets quick defeat by allied powers; Napoleon finally surrenders and is exiled to island of Elba.

• Louis XVIII, new king, is soon overthrown and Napoleon returns from exile; Battle of Waterloo—British, Prussian forces defeat Napoleon’s army; This defeat ends Hundred Days—Napoleon’s last attempt at power.

Napoleon’s exile to Elba

• 1812—Napoleon’s forces were defeated in Russia. Russia, Britain, Austria, and Prussia form a new alliance against a weakened France.

• 1813—Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Nations in Leipzig.

• 1814—Napoleon abdicated, or stepped down from power, and was exiled to Elba, an island in the Mediterranean Sea.

• 1815—Napoleon escaped his exile and returned to France. Napoleon’s last battle where he was defeated by the Duke of Wellington was at Waterloo. Napoleon was forced to abdicate again, and was this time exiled to St. Helena, an island in the South Atlantic.

• 1821—Napoleon died in exile.

Congress of Vienna (1815)

• Reorganized Europe after the Napoleonic Wars.

• It began in September 1814, five months after Napoleon's first abdication and completed its “Final Act” in June 1815, shortly before the Waterloo campaign and the final defeat of Napoleon.

• The settlement was the most-comprehensive treaty that Europe had ever seen.

Napoleon’s Legacy

• Napoleon’s replacing king of Spain set off rebellions in Spanish America; many former colonies of Spain and Portugal gain independence. On the world stage, Napoleon’s conquests spread the ideas of the revolution and nationalism. Napoleon failed to make Europe into a French empire.

• Napoleon turned France into a centralized state with a constitution. Elections were held with expanded, though limited, suffrage.

• Many more citizens had rights to property and access to education. French citizens lost many rights promised to them during the Convention.

• The abolition of the Holy Roman Empire would eventually contribute to the creation of a new Germany.

• Napoleon’s decision to sell France’s Louisiana Territory to America doubled the size of the United States and ushered in an age of American expansion.

Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)

• French Revolution had huge influence on the French Caribbean colony of Saint Domingue (later Haiti)

• Saint Domingue was richest colony in the world, produced 40% of the world’s sugar and 50% of the world’s coffee

• Slave labor force made up majority of the population

• Whites were divided between very well-to-do plantation owners, merchants, and lawyers and poor whites (petits blancs) – 1/3 of population was gens de couleur libres (free people of color) – many of them with mixed-raced background.

• Principles of the revolution meant different things to different people:

  • grand blancs (rich white landowners) wanted greater autonomy for the colony and fewer economic restrictions

  • petits blancs sought equality of citizenship for all whites

  • Both groups were adamantly opposed to the insistence of free people of color that the “rights of man” meant equal treatment for all free people regardless of race

• In 1791, triggered by rumors that the French king had already declared an end to slavery, slaves burned 1,000 plantations and killed hundreds of whites as well as mixed-race people

• Warring factions of slaves, whites, and free people of color battled one another

• Slaves were led by Toussaint L’Ouverture – himself a former slave

• TL and his successor overcame internal resistance and defeated an attempt by Napoleon to reestablish French control

Toussaint L’Ouverture

• Born a slave

• Granted freedom in 1777

• Formed his own army

• L’Ouverture- nickname meaning “the opening”

• Inspired by revolutions in France and America

• Led the revolt in French colony of Santo Domingo (Haiti)

• Fed up with the harsh treatment, the African slaves who outnumbered the French decided to revolt

• L’Overture used the timing of the French Revolution, knowing the French would be too busy at home to worry about an outlying colony.

• Touissant L’Overture defeated the colonial army and remained in control until 1802 when Napoleon sent an army to retake the island.

• Independence was gained in 1804 when the French were finally driven out and Santo Domingo was renamed  Haiti.

Results:

Defeated the armies of three foreign powers: Spain, France, and Britain.

Abolished slavery

Won independence

Latin American Independence Movements (1810-1825)

• Revolutions were shaped by events in North America, France, and Haiti

• Native-born elites in the Spanish colonies (known as creoles) were insulted by Spanish monarchy’s efforts during the 18th century to exercise greater power colonies

• Spain tried to subject them to heavier taxes and tariffs

• Creole intellectuals had become familiar with ideas of the Enlightenment: popular sovereignty,  republican government, and personal liberty

• Revolution occurred after North American revolutions b/c settlers in Spanish colonies had no tradition of self-government such as that in North America

• Society was far more divided by class

• Whites were outnumbered by Native Americans, people of African descent, and those of mixed race

• All of this inhibited the growth of a movement for independence

• Instability caused by Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and Portugal forced Latin Americans to take action (Spanish king was deposed and the Portuguese royal family was exiled in Brazil)

• Revolutions lasted twice as long because Latin American societies were so divided by class, race, and religion.

• In Mexico, the move toward independence began in 1810 in a peasant insurrection, drive by hunger for land and by high food prices and led by two priests: Miguel Hidalgo and Jose Morelos

• Alarmed by the social radicalism of the Hidalgo-Morelos rebellion, Creole landowners, with the support of the Church, raised and army and crushed the insurgency

• Later the alliance of clergy and Creole elites brought Mexico to a more socially controlled independence in 1821

• Such violent conflict among Latin Americans, along lines of race, class, and ideology, accompanied the struggle against Spain in many places.

Simon Bolivar

• Native-born resident who led revolutionary efforts

• Began campaign to rebel against royalty

• Influenced by Rousseau

• Supported a constitutional monarchy

• Hoped to unite with Venezuela and Columbia (Gran Columbia)

• Bolivar dreamed of a united Latin America but nationalism, ambitious leaders of individual states and isolating geography prevented this.

New Social Hierarchies in New Spain

• New social hierarchies emerged based on race and birth location

• Peninsulares had the most power, land, and political authority

  • Looked to Spain for guidance but largely saw themselves as unique and independent

• Creoles were the children of peninsulares, born in New Spain

• A lack of Spanish women meant that mixed race children were also included in the social hierarchy, but below peninsulares and creoles

Unification of Germany

• Frederick William of Prussia wanted to be head of a united Germany- but on his terms.

• Otto von Bismarck was enlisted by King Frederick to achieve this goal

  • “Blood and Iron”- von Bismarck's slogan that he would go to war to unify Germany

  • Started three wars and won all of them

1. With Denmark over Schleswig-area where many Germans lived

2. With Austria- Austro-Prussia War-over administration of German provinces

3. With France- Franco- Prussian War- France forced to give Germany border country of Alsace and part of Lorraine- both rich in coal and iron.

• At Versailles, the leaders of the German states met with Bismarck- the southern German states joined with the Northern German Confederation to form the German Empire (Reich)

• King William I of Prussia became the Kaiser (emperor) of all Germany

• Bismarck was named chancellor.

• Written constitution with a two-house legislature

Klemens von Metternich

Austrian statesman, minister of foreign affairs (1809–48), and a champion of conservatism, who helped form the victorious alliance against Napoleon I and who restored Austria as a leading European power, hosting the Congress of Vienna in 1814–15.

Prussia

• Prussia was one of the largest German  states.

• Its Prime Minister, Otto von Bismarck, used skillful diplomacy and Prussian military power to achieve German unification.

• Prussia badly wanted to unify these 39 states into a new nation, Germany Otto von Bismarck was Prime Minister of Prussia who used RealPolitik—pursue goals by any means necessary (go to  war, lie, break treaties)

Otto Van Bismarck

• King Wilhelm I appointed Bismarck as Minister President of Prussia, a position he would hold until 1890

• He provoked three short, decisive wars against Denmark, Austria, and France,

• In 1871 he formed the German Empire with himself as Chancellor, while retaining control of Prussia.

• His powerful rule at home gained him the nickname the "Iron Chancellor."

• German unification and its rapid economic growth was the foundation to his foreign policy.

• “The great questions of the day will not be settled by means of speeches and majority decisions but by iron and blood.”

Germany After Unification

• Germany became one of the strongest nations in Europe with Increased military and naval power

• Abundant natural resources helped in the growth of industry

• High standard of living and high rate of literacy

• Despite democracy- Kaiser held all authority in government

• Imperialism

Italian Unification

• “Italy” in 1815 was not a unified nation; it was divided into 3 regions:

  • Parts were independent & had their own king

  • Parts were foreign controlled by Austria & France

  • Parts were controlled by the Pope

• In the 1830s, nationalism led to a unification movement  as Italians began to see themselves as having a shared history (ancient Rome, Renaissance), shared territory, shared enemies(Napoleonic Wars)

Unification of Italy’s Leaders

• G. Mazzini- in the 1830’s founded Young Italy- secret society that called for a unified Italy under a representative government

  • This group amassed 50,00 to 60,00 Italian in size, and lasted roughly two decades

  • Had to flee Italy many times because his revolutionary ideas put his life in danger, he lead from other countries

• C. Cavour- Risorgimento or reawakening to unification

  • Stirred anti-Austrian feelings in Italy

  • His revolts allowed for France & Britain to ally with Italy to overthrow the Austrians

  • Set foundation for unification

• G. Garibaldi- led many attempts to secure unified independence for Italy

  • Worked with Mazzini in the 1830’s

  • Led northern Italy in an unsuccessful revolt against Austrian rule

  • Led effort to replace pope’s rule over Rome

  • Went into exile to keep his freedom

  • In May 1860, he landed in Sicily with an army of Red Shirts

  • After victory in Sicily, Garibaldi moved up the peninsula and by 1871 Italy was united into one country with the pope having control over a small portion of Rome- Vatican City

Italy After Unification

• Limited constitutional monarchy

• Only wealthy could vote -1912 all men could vote

• Widespread corruption (vote-selling)

• Imperialism

• Hard to communicate and travel to areas, no mass transit to really unify

Propaganda Movement in the Philippines

Reform and national consciousness movement that arose among young Filipino expatriates in the late 19th century. Although its adherents expressed loyalty to the Spanish colonial government, Spanish authorities harshly repressed the movement and executed its most prominent member, José Rizal. Public education did not arrive in the Philippines until the 1860s, and even then the Roman Catholic Church controlled the curriculum. The Filipino population was thus kept apart from the colonial power that had been ruling it for more than three centuries. After the construction of the Suez Canal in 1869, sons of the wealthy were sent to Spain and other countries for study. At home and abroad, a growing sense of Filipino identity had begun to manifest, and in 1872 this burgeoning nationalism spawned an armed insurrection. About 200 Filipino soldiers at the Cavite arsenal revolted, killed their officers, and shouted for independence

Maori nationalism and the New Zealand wars in New Zealand

The New Zealand Wars were a series of armed conflicts that took place in New Zealand from 1845 to 1872 between the Colonial government and allied Māori on one side and Māori and Māori-allied settlers on the other. The wars were fought over a number of issues, most prominently Māori land being sold to the settler (white) population. The Treaty of Waitangi, signed in 1840, guaranteed that individual Māori iwi (tribes) should have undisturbed possession of their lands, forests, fisheries and other taonga (treasures). Some early colonial land-sale deals had had a dubious basis, and the parties involved sometimes concluded sales before the signing of the Treaty. To avoid such situations happening again, the newly constituted British colonial authorities decreed that Māori could sell land only to the Crown (the Right of Preemption).

Balkan nationalisms

The Balkans is a large peninsula in south-eastern European. It is sandwiched between four major seas: the Black Sea, the Mediterranean, the Adriatic and the Aegean. This peninsula hosts a cluster of nations and provinces, including Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Macedonia and Bosnia. While the 18th century in the Balkans was dominated by the steady decline of Ottoman power, the outstanding feature of the 19th century was the creation of nation-states on what had been Ottoman territory. Because the emergence of national consciousness and the creation of nation-states were conditioned by local factors, each nation evolved in an individual way.

Puerto Rico - writings of Lola Rodriguez de Tio

She was the first Puerto Rican-born woman poet to establish herself a reputation as a great poet throughout all of Latin America. A believer in women's rights, she was also committed to the abolition of slavery and the independence of Puerto Rico.

Ottomanism

Ottomanism was a concept which developed prior to the 1876-1878 First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire. Its proponents believed that it could solve the social issues that the empire was facing. Political elites used Ottomanism to achieve consensus among different ethnic and religious communities and foster political and social unanimity in allegiance to the sultan. It originated as a response to foreign encroachments and separatist movements during the Tanzimat period and was sustained by enhanced social and political mobilization. While Ottomanism was sufficiently vague and malleable to serve different political platforms, the territorial indivisibility of Ottoman domains was its constant concern. The administrative principle of centralization was integral to Ottomanist policies.