AP Psychology Unit 2: Research Methods, History, and Approaches (copy)

Wilhelm Wundt

German physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879

Edward Titchener

Student of Wilhelm Wundt; founder of Structuralist school of psychology. The structuralist approach implies that in order for anyone to fully understand a concept such as linguistics, they first must understand the sub-sets and how these fit into the overarching structure.

G. Stanley Hall

American psychologist who established the first psychology research laboratory in the United States and founded the American Psychological Association

Charles Darwin

English naturalist. He studied the plants and animals of South America and the Pacific islands, and in his book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859) set forth his theory of evolution.

William James

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

Functionalism

A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.

Humanistic Psychology

A clinical viewpoint emphasizing human ability, growth, potential, and free will.

Cognitive Psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Behavioral Psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

Biological Psychology

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior

Evolutionary Psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Psychoanalytic Psychology

emphasized the ways our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect our behavior

Sociocultural Psychology

study of influence of cultural and ethnic similarities and differences on behavior and social functioning

Psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

Industrial-Organizational

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

Human Factors Psychology

a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

Clinical Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

Psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

Positive Psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

Community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

Hypothesis

An educated guess

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

random sample

a sample in which every element in the population has an equal chance of being selected

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

control group

the group that does not receive the experimental treatment.

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Population

group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

correlational research

research that seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

meta-analysis

a "study of studies" that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

double-blind experiment

an experiment in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which participants received which treatment

placebo condition

condition in an experiment in which participants receive a treatment similar to the experimental treatment, but lacking the key feature of the treatment of interest to eliminate placebo effect

conformation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

cofounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

Generalizability

the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it("i knew it all along")

Reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

Validity

Actually measuring exactly what you intend to measure(accuracy)

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

statical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

correlation coefficient

a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

skewed distribution

When the results are not symmetrical (appears to favor one side over the other)

normal distribution

A function that represents the distribution of variables as a symmetrical bell-shaped graph.

positive correlation

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.

negative correlation

as one variable increases, the other decreases

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables

Histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

Instituional Review Board (IRB)

group that has been formally designated to review and monitor biomedical research involving human subjects. Has the authority to approve, require modifications in, or disapprove research. This group review serves an important role in the protection of the rights and welfare of human research subjects.

Debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

deception

lying to the subjects concerning the true nature of a study because knowing the true nature of the study might affect their performance

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

distributed practice

Technique in which items to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time.

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection. Subconscious retention of procedural things.

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. Also changes memories from STM to LTM.

long-term potentiation

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

flashbulb memory

A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event.

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

mood congruent

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list

antergrade amnesia

inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive

applying or referring to a period prior to acting something out

Interference of Memory

Retrieval error cased by existence of other (usually similar) information.

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

misinformation effect

when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem. Important for implicit memories created by classical conditioning.

basal ganglia

Functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance. Facilitates the creation of procedural memories. Doesn't respond to cortex, making implicit memories along side cerebellum.

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

convergent thinking

a type of critical thinking in which one evaluates existing possible solutions to a problem to choose the best one

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. Example is when someone talks about a bird, you automatically think of a Robin.

Mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past