Investigating Behaviour

What is a research method

A way in which something is investigated i.e. experiments, observations and questionnaires. It is a method that you use to carry out a piece of research

What does subjective mean?

Information that is based on opinion, it cannot be replicated because it is not scientific

What does objective mean?

Information that is based on data that can be replicated. This type of data is more scientific and is more accepted to be 'fact'. It is interpreted in the same way by everyone

What are ethics?

Rules or principles which govern right conduct of a person or the members of a profession

What are the 5 ethical issues?

Valid consent
Confidentiality
Risk of harm
Deception
Privacy

What is valid consent?

Inform participants about the purpose of the research, duration, that they have the right to withdraw at any stage. This ensures patients, clients, and research participants are aware of all the potential risks and costs involved in s treatment or procedure

What is confidentiality?

The participants anonymity should be protected. They must not be identifiable through the research findings. Their details should be kept secure and protected from inappropriate access

What is risk of harm

Participants should be treated with respect and dignity ad have this rights prioritised. Researchers should not expose participants to stress, anxiety, humiliation or pain

What is deception

Participants should not be lied to unless not doing so would render the study pointless, due to demand characteristics or social desirability

What is privacy

A persons right to control the flow of information about themselves

What are the strategies to deal with ethical issues

Right to withdraw
Debriefing
Ethics committees
Punishment

What is the right to withdraw?

A participant's right to leave a study at any time and their ability to do so.

What is debriefing?

A description of the true nature and purpose of a study that is given to a participant after the study has ended.

What are ethics committees

They must approve a study before it takes place, they assess the possible ethical issues raised in the research proposal. They then weigh the ethical cost of conducting the experiment for participants against the benefits of the research

What is punishment

If a psychologist behaves in an unethical manner, the BPS reviews the research and may ban the psychologist from practicing

What are the ethical considerations

Risk to the participants values, beliefs, relationships, status or privacy
Working with vulnerable individuals (including children)
Working with animals

What is risk to the participants values, beliefs, relationships, status or privacy

Researcher have the responsibility to make sure the study has no negative affect on the participants social life or job. This can be ensured by maintaining confidentiality

What is working with vulnerable individuals (including children)

Children under 16 and adults with mental illnesses or learning difficulties must have a parents/guardians permission

What is working with animals

Animals must only be used in research if no other options are available, and the researchers can demonstrate that differing will be kept to. A minimum and that data collected will be justified by the cost to the animal

What are the 5 basic principles psychologists must follow when working with animals

- they must conform to the animals act 1986
- they must follow the 3 R's
- choose species or strains of animals that suit the research purpose
- care for the animals
- make sure normal foods intake and metabolic requirements are met

What are the 3 R's

- replacement (partial and full)
- reduction
- refinement

What is partial replacement

Animals are used which are not considered to experience suffering

What is full replacement

Human volunteers, tissues and mathematical and computer models are used

What is reduction

Less animals are used by
- imaging modalities which allow longitudinal measurements in the same animal
- microsampling of blood taken to allow repeat experiments with the same animal

What is refinement?

- Ensuring animals are provided with housing that allows the expression of species specific behaviours
- using appropriate anaesthesia and analgesia to minimise pain
- training animals to co-operate with any procedures

What is a researchers point of view on valid consent

If you tell the participants the true mature of the study it could change the way they act

What is a participants point of view on valid consent

Consent is a basic human right and participants deserve to know what they need to do in order to give valid consent

What is a researchers point of view on deception

If you tell the participants the true mature of the study it could change the way they act and withholding details of research aims is ok, deliberately providing false information is less acceptable

What is a participants point of view on deception

Deception may cause psychologists to be seen as untrustworthy. Deception could cause distress to participant

What is a researchers point of view on risk of harm

Difficult to guarantee protection from harm as difficult to predict study outcome

What is a participants point of view on risk of harm

Risk of harm is ok if it is no more than would be expected in day to day life and participants should be in the same state before and after a study

What is a researchers point of view on confidentiality

Confidentiality is difficult as researchers may wish to publish their findings and people can narrow down who has been involved even without names being included

What is a participants point of view on confidentiality

Data may only be recorded if it is made available in a form that identifies participants

What is a researchers point of view on privacy

Difficult to avoid invasion of privacy when studying without participants awareness

What is a participants point of view on privacy

People should not be observed in their own spaces e.g. homes. May be expected in a public place e.g. park bench

What is operationalisation?

Ensuring that variables are in a form that can be easily measured - tell someone how you are going to measure your variables

What are variables?

Factors in a study that are changed and measured

What is an independent variable?

The variable that is being changed

What is a dependent variable?

the variable that is being measured

What is an aim

A statement about the general purpose of the study

What is a hypothesis?

A predictable testable statement about the relationship between two variables

What is a null hypothesis

States there is going to be no difference

What is an experimental hypothesis

States there is going to be a difference

What is a correlational hypothesis

States there is a relationship between two variables

What do all studies have

A null hypothesis

Any hypothesis that is not a null hypothesis can be referred to as a

Alternate hypothesis

What is a directional hypothesis?

States the direction of the difference or relationship

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

States the relationship exists, but not the direction

When is a psychologist more likely to use a directional hypothesis

When they have lots of background information about the topic area

What must all hypothesis include

The IV, DV, and how they are measured (operationalised)

What is a target population

Group of people whose behaviour you are interested in studying

Why are samples used?

It's unrealistic to expect to get an entire target population to be in a study as it's usually very large

What does representative mean

The sample reflects the characteristics of the target population accurately

What does generalisable mean

The results of the study can be applied to the target population

What is a sampling method

The method used to select the sample from the target population

What are the 7 sampling methods?

- opportunity sampling
- random sampling
- snowball sampling
- self-selected sampling
- stratified sampling
- quota sampling
- systematic sampling

What is opportunity sampling

selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study

Advantages of opportunity sampling

- quick and easy
- cheap

Disadvantages of opportunity sampling

- could lead to a lack of representation in sample e.g. people could have similar characteristics

What is random sampling

Obtained using a random technique e.g. random name generator

Advantages of random sampling

- may allow representation in sample
- unbiased

Disadvantages of random sampling

- time consuming
- may not get a representative sample

What is snowball sampling?

Referrals from initial participants - recruiting other people they know

Advantages of snowball sampling

- allows for a large sample size
- no researcher bias
- easy way to access hard to reach groups e.g. drug addicts/Olympians

Disadvantages of snowball sampling

Could be affected by bias as the sample is not likely to provide a cross-section from the target population because it includes friends of friends.

What is self-selected sampling

Individuals volunteer to partake in a study, often by responding to an advert

Advantages of self-selected sampling

- no researcher bias (not selecting participants)
- quick
- easy
- allows for consent
- more likely to stay in study

Disadvantages of self-selected sampling

- biased
- unrepresentative sample

What is stratified sampling?

Subgroups are identified in the target population. Participants are selected randomly from each strata (subgroup), in proportion to their occurrence in the target population

Advantages of stratified sampling

- representative
- unbiased

Disadvantages of stratified sampling

- time consuming
- expensive

What is quota sampling?

Similar to stratified sampling however participants are not selected randomly from each strata

Advantages of quota sampling

- less bias
- quicker than stratified

Disadvantages of quota sampling

- not representative

What is systematic sampling

Obtained by using every nth person. This can be random if first participant is selected using random sampling

Advantages of systematic sampling

- removes bias

Disadvantages of systematic sampling

- time consuming

What is quantitative data

Data than can be expressed numerically in some way

Advantage of quantitative data

Data cannot be questioned making it reliable

Disadvantage of quantitative data

Lacks detail

What is qualitative data

In depth and rich data that can give you an insight into participants thoughts and beliefs

Strength of qualitative data

Allows for detailed results which can make conclusions more in depth

Disadvantages of qualitative data

- results can be questioned decreasing validity of study
- subjective
- difficult to represent

What is reliability

The extent to which a method of measurement or study can produce consistent findings. It also refers to how replicable the study is

3 factors that may affect reliability

- lack of control or extraneous variables
- use of standardised procedures
- use of objective data - quantitative data

What are the 2 types of reliability

- internal
- external

What is internal reliability

The extent to which a test or measure is consistent within itself

How is internal reliability measured

The split half method

What is the split half method

An individuals responses are split in half and compared

What is external reliability

The extent to which a test produces consistent results over several occasions.

How is external reliability measured

The test retest method

What is the test retest method

A group of participants are given the same test sometime later. If external reliability is high, results should be similar

What is validity

This refers to whether something measures what it claims to measure

What are the 2 types of validity

- internal
- external

What is internal validity

The study measures what it intends to measure - confounding variables have been controlled

What is external validity

Whether the study paints s true picture of real life behaviours and whether the findings would apply to different places, different times or different people

What are the 3 types of external validity

- population
- ecological
- historical

What is population validity

Are the findings generalisable to all people

What is ecological validity

Is the research generalisable to everyday life

What is historical validity

If the study was conducted a long time ago, is it still generalisable to today's society