Myers' Psychology Modules 5.1-5.5

Stress

The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events (stressors) that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

Catastrophes

Large-scale disasters like earthquakes, hurricanes, or wildfires. They can cause significant emotional and physical damage.

Significant life changes

Life transitions such as moving across states, the death of a loved one, or the divorce of parents. These changes can be stressful and often require adjustment and coping strategies.

Daily hassles

Everyday things that we don’t like, including annoying siblings, overflowing to-do lists, or having to speak in public. These can compound and cause significant mental distress over time.

Approach-approach conflicts

Conflicts that occur because an individual must decide between two equally desirable but incompatible options.

Avoidance-avoidance conflicts

Conflicts that occur because an individual must decide between two equally undesirable choices.

Approach-avoidance conflicts

Conflicts that occur when an individual must choose between two choices that have both desirable and undesirable factors.

General adaption syndrome

Hans Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Tend-and-befriend response

A behavioral and psychological response to stress in which people (especially women) may nurture themselves and others, and bond with and seek support from others.

Type A personality

A personality type characterized by competitiveness, impatience, and a constant sense of urgency, often linked to higher stress levels and an increased risk of heart disease.

Type B personality

A personality type characterized by a more relaxed, easy-going nature, less urgency, and lower stress levels compared to Type A personality.

Problem-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressors or the way one interacts with the stressors.

Emotion-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding/ignoring the stressors and attending to emotional needs related to the stressors.

External locus of control

The perception that outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

Internal locus of control

The perception that we can control our own fates.

Learned helplessness

The hopelessness and passive resignation humans and other animals learn when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

Subjective well-being

Self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life.

Feel-good, do-good phenomenon

The tendency of people to be more likely to help others when they are in a good mood. It also works in reverse: doing good things can increase a person’s mood.

Relative deprivation

The perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves.

Broaden-and-build theory

A theory proposing that positive emotions broaden our awareness, which over time helps us build novel and meaningful skills and resilience that improve our well-being.

Dysfunction

A psychological condition or behavior that disrupts a person's ability to function effectively in everyday life.

Distress

A state of emotional suffering or psychological pain that can disrupt daily functioning.

Maladaptation

A behavioral or psychological pattern that is counterproductive or harmful to an individual's mental health, often leading to difficulties in adjusting to life situations.

DSM-5

A widely used manual for diagnosing various mental disorders. It includes specific criteria and guidelines to ensure consistency and accuracy in diagnosis.

Medical model

A framework in psychiatry that views mental disorders primarily as medical conditions. It emphasizes biological factors and often advocates for treatment through medication or other medical interventions.

Diathesis-stress model

A psychological theory that explains the onset of mental disorders as a result of an interaction between a predispositional vulnerability (diathesis) and environmental stressors.

Anxiety disorders

A group of mental disorders characterized by excessive fear and anxiety and related maladaptive behaviors.

Social anxiety disorder

An anxiety disorder characterized by an intense fear of social situations and being judged or scrutinized by others.

Generalized anxiety disorder

An anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal.

Panic disorder

An anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person may experience terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations; often followed by worry over a possible next attack.

Agoraphobia

The intense fear and avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one may experience a loss of control and panic.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder

A disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both.

Hoarding disorder

A persistent difficulty parting with possessions, regardless of their value.

PTSD

A disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, hypervigilance, avoidance of trauma-related stimuli, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience.

Depressive disorders

A group of disorders characterized by an enduring sad, empty, or irritable mood, along with physical and cognitive changes that affect a person’s ability to function.

Major depressive disorder

A depressive disorder in which a person experiences five or more symptoms lasting two or more weeks, in the absence of drug use or a medical condition, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure.

Persistent depressive disorder

A depressive disorder in which people experience a depressed mood on more days than not for at least 2 years (formerly called dysthymia).

Bipolar 1 disorder

A type of bipolar disorder characterized by at least one manic episode, often with episodes of depression. During manic phases, individuals may experience elevated mood, increased energy, and impulsive behavior.

Bipolar 2 disorder

A mood disorder characterized by at least one major depressive episode and at least one hypomanic episode, but no full manic episodes.

Schizophrenic spectrum disorders

A group of disorders characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking or speech, disorganized or unusual motor behavior, and negative symptoms (absence of appropriate behaviors).

Schizophrenia

A chronic and severe mental disorder that affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves, often involving psychotic episodes characterized by delusions and hallucinations.

Delusions

False beliefs that are not based in reality. The most common types are paranoid, grandiose, and delusions of reference. A positive symptom of schizophrenia.

Disorganized speech

A speech pattern that is fragmented, incoherent, or lacks logical connections, which can make communication difficult for the speaker and listener. A positive symptom of schizophrenia.

Flat affect

A lack of emotional expression in facial expressions or tone of voice. A negative symptom of schizophrenia.

Catatonia

A state of unresponsiveness, immobility, or abnormal movement that can occur in schizophrenia and other mental disorders. Symptoms may include stupor, rigidity, or excessive movement.

Dopamine hypothesis

The theory suggesting that schizophrenia is linked to an overactivity of dopamine transmission in certain brain regions, influencing symptoms like hallucinations and delusions.

Dissociative disorders

A rare group of disorders characterized by a disruption of or discontinuity in the normal integration of consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, body representation, motor control, and behavior.

Dissociative amnesia

A disorder in which people with intact brains reportedly experience memory gaps; people with may report not remembering trauma-related specific events, people, places, or aspects of their identity and life history.

Dissociative identity disorder

A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities (formerly called multiple personality disorder).

Cluster A personality disorders

Personality disorders characterized as odd and eccentric. Includes paranoid personality disorder, schizoid personality disorder, and schizotypal personality disorder.

Cluster B personality disorders

Personality disorders characterized by dramatic, emotional, or erratic behavior. Includes antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder, and narcissistic personality disorder.

Antisocial personality disorder

A personality disorder in which a person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members; may be aggressive and ruthless.

Cluster C personality disorders

Personality disorders characterized by anxious and fearful behaviors. Includes avoidant personality disorder, dependent personality disorder, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder.

Anorexia nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight, leading to self-starvation and excessive weight loss.

Bulimia nervosa

An eating disorder marked by recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as vomiting or excessive exercise.

Binge-eating disorders

Eating disorders characterized by recurrent episodes of eating large quantities of food, often to the point of discomfort, accompanied by feelings of loss of control and distress.

Neurodevelopmental disorders

Central nervous system abnormalities (usually in the brain) that start in childhood and alter thinking and behavior (as in intellectual limitations or a psychological disorder).

Autism spectrum disorder

A range of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, and communication.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

A neurodevelopmental disorder marked by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that interfere with functioning or development.

Psychotherapy

Treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth.

eclecticism

A therapeutic approach that integrates various psychological theories and methods to tailor treatment to the individual needs of the client. P

Psychodynamic therapy

A form of therapy based on Freud’s psychoanalysis that explores unconscious processes and past experiences, aiming to gain insight into current behavior and emotions.

Free association

A therapeutic technique in psychodynamic therapy where clients verbalize thoughts and feelings without censorship to reveal unconscious material.

Resistance

A client's reluctance to bring up distressing thoughts or feelings during therapy, often as a defense mechanism against facing painful memories.

Transference

The process in which clients project feelings about important figures in their lives onto the therapist, often reflecting unresolved issues.

Humanistic therapy

A psychological approach that emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and the importance of the individual's subjective experience.

Active listening

Empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and seeks clarification. A feature of Carl Rogers’ person-centered therapy.

Unconditional positive regard

A caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients develop self-awareness and self-acceptance.

Behavior therapy

A type of therapy that applies learning principles to the treatment of psychological disorders, focusing on changing maladaptive behaviors.

Counterconditioning

A behavioral therapy technique that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors by pairing them with new, positive stimuli.

Exposure therapy

A type of behavioral therapy that involves gradual exposure to anxiety-producing stimuli, helping clients confront and reduce their fear responses.

Systematic desensitization

A behavioral therapy technique that combines exposure to fear-inducing stimuli with relaxation strategies to reduce anxiety.

Token economy

A behavioral therapy technique that uses a system of rewards to encourage desired behaviors by providing tokens that can be exchanged for various privileges or items.

Rational emotive behavior therapy

A confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously challenges people’s illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions.

Beck’s cognitive therapy

A form of cognitive therapy developed by Aaron Beck that aims to identify and change negative thought patterns that contribute to emotional distress.

Cognitive behavioral therapy

A type of psychotherapy that combines cognitive and behavioral techniques to improve mental health by changing thought patterns and behaviors.

Dialectical behavioral therapy

A form of cognitive-behavioral therapy developed by Marsha Linehan that focuses on teaching skills for emotional regulation, interpersonal effectiveness, distress tolerance, and mindfulness.

Therapeutic alliance

A collaborative partnership between therapist and client that fosters trust and communication, essential for effective therapy.

Biomedical therapy

A type of therapy that involves the use of medications or medical procedures to treat psychological disorders.

Antipsychotics

Medications used to manage psychosis, particularly in disorders like schizophrenia. They help regulate mood and behavior by altering neurotransmitter (dopamine) activity in the brain. Extensive use can cause tardive dyskinesia.

Antianxiety drugs

Medications that help reduce anxiety symptoms by acting on the central nervous system, often enhancing the effects of neurotransmitters like GABA and reducing the effects of norepinephrine.

Antidepressants

Medications used to treat depression by influencing neurotransmitters such as serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain, helping to elevate mood and alleviate symptoms.

ECT

A medical treatment for severe depression that involves electrically inducing a brief seizure in a patient while they are under anesthesia, often used when other treatments have failed.

TMS

A non-invasive procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain, primarily used to treat depression by targeting areas associated with mood regulation.

Lobotomy

A neurosurgical procedure that involves severing connections in the brain's prefrontal lobe, historically used to treat severe mental disorders, but now considered controversial and largely outdated.